Five Acres And Independence

Revised, Enlarged Edition $ 2.50

(Twenty- second Printing)

FIVE ACRES

AND INDEPENDENCE

A Practical Guide to the Selection
and Management of the
Small Farm

By M. G. KAXNS, B.S., H.A.

&

Security is assured and even comfort and luxury
may come to the family who owns and wisely
operates a small farm Not only can such a
place supply the food requirements of the
family, but it may produce abundance to sell,
often at higher pnces than those of the general
market

This book tells hows to select, finance, stock and
develop such a place It points out mistakes to
avoid as well as methods that assure success, it
emphasizes the importance of good water, sanita-
tion, drainage and irrigation, tells how to en-
hance crop yields while also improving soil
conditions, explains how to treat neglected
orchards already on the place, how to start and
care for new ones, how to plant berry patches
and vineyards and how to avoid losses of
nursery stock It discusses die pros ^nd cops
of fruit and vegetable crops, dairy cyws, hoy.
poultry and bees, presents satisfactory ways nr (
Btonng perishable products, and svj.'lgests
ding methods thatlhave proved their v t’f -j

The book is based on the personal w '"expert- (
ence of the author and covers virtuatiy every /
problem that the small farm owner is likely to,
encounter The New York Times said -c

lut detailed advice and explanation on ev^rj)
topic treated leave httie chance for even tftf i gnoran,
and unskilled person to go ugrcmg in hit farming open' ‘
tions if he is intelligent enoagh to trust Ins guide anal » '
follow directions ” - J *

(Continued on Back. FJdp)

§s

FIVE ACRES

AND INDEPENDENCE

A PRACTICAL GUIDE TO THE
SELECTION AND MANAGEMENT
OF THE SMALL FARM

“By

M. G. KAINS, B.S , M.S.

Special Crop Cubans t, U S Department of Agriculture,
Formerly Head of Horticulture Department, Pennsylvania State
College. Horticulture, Agriculture and Botany Editor,

New International Encyclopedia,

Garden Editor Pictorial Review and other National Magazines,
lecturer on Horticulture, Columbia University

Author of

Modem Guide to Sutearful Gardening,

Plant Pnpagatnn, Principle and Practise of Pruning,
Culinary Herts, etc, etc.

NEW YORK
iv *

REEN'®;4rG PUBLISHER

CONTENTS

CBARn

y\. Introduction

A word about the author, his practical experience,
and qualifications suggest reliability of the test.

2 City vs. Country Lise

Advantages and disadvantages; city vicissitudes, de-
pendence upon “income” to supply “outgo”, country
stabihty, productivity; dependence upon “outgo” to
supply “income", self-supporting, occupancy of
home in country vs. tenancy of “flat” in city, health,
wealth, happiness in country home.

^3. Tried and True Ways to Fail

Too little capital, unfavorable location, uncongenial
soil, too large area, inefficient soil preparation and
tillage, lack of feeding, big-headedness, inexperience,
city hours, laziness, too many pets and guests-

4. Who Is Likely to Succeed?

Thinker and worker, owner on the spot; absentee
direction, book farming, observation as a teacher;
hired help

5. Figures Don’t Lie

Striking figures from U. S. Census and Department
» of Agriculture reports, supply and demand, relation
to and contrast with individual owner’s problems on
productive land

v 6. The Farm to Choose

Soil survey maps, character of soil, nature of plant
growth already on the land; depth, drainage, slope,
freedoA from stones, previous crops and yields,
neighborhood ctods and vields

TAGS

1

4

7

11

IS

18

CONTENTS

HAPTEtt

X Where to Locate

•’ ' ' * Good roads, their up-keep, snow removal, site with
respect to roadside sales, distance from market,
schools, churches, electric current, buses, stores,
doctors, etc

8 Lay and Lay-out of Land

Elevation, aspect, frostiness, impediments such as
fences, boulders, stone walls, fields— sizes and shapes,
roadways, lanes and paths, arrangement of buildings

9 Wind-breaks, Pro and Con

Importance, types, influence on crops, animals and
residence, workability in their shelter, good and bad
kinds, saving of fuel, production of fuel

0 Essential Factors of Production

Good seed, good breed of animal, variety, “strain”;
abundant water and available plant food in the soil,
rational tillage, ample space between plants and for
animals

1 Renting vs Buying

Advantages and disadvantages of each, various ways
to manage depend upon each, renting with option of
buying, buying a small place but working large rented
area

Z Capital

Investment and working money, cost of land, rent of
property, insurance, equipment, nursery stock and
other plants, animals, labor, time needed to get
returns

5 Farm Finance

Importance of credit, origin of capital, how secured,
borrowing for production, usury, fundamental rules
for borrowing, character of borrower and business
ability, annual inventory and budget, bank -cashier
as adviser and confidant; safety deposit boxes

k Farm Accounts

Planning for production, knowledge of market, and
the truth ,about one’s business, ^records of crops and

MS

22

27

30

37

47

52 '

56

63

CONTENTS

vu

animals individually and of the farm as a ■whole; ac-
count books.

»-15. Waxes Supply

Rain water and cisterns, filter cisterns; cistern capaci-
ties, cistern cleaning and purification; springs, grav-
ity piping, pneumatic pressure systems, hydraulic
rams.

16. Sewage Disposal

Primitive methods, cess pools, septic tanks, tank
construction, personal experience.

17. Functions of Water

Necessity in plant and animal growth; quantity
needed by plants; types of water in soil; conserva-
tion by tillage and mulching.

18. Drainage

Importance, methods, instances to prove their value.
■-19. Irrigation

Methods, types of apparatus, assurance of adequate
water; success in spite of drouth, use to supply fer-
tilizer and certain kinds of spraying

20. Frost Damage Prevention

What frost is; how it affects plants, plant resistance
to damage, hardy and tender plants, preventing fall
of temperature to or below danger point; forecasting
local frosts, methods available.

21. Live Stock

Advantages and disadvantages of keeping cow, pig,
poultry, rabbits, bees, desirable and undesirable
kinds to have

t

22. Poultry

Chickens for eggs and meat, ducks, geese, turkeys,
pigeons, scrubs vs breeds and strains, housing, feed-
ing ? yarding,' range, management; hatching vs. buy-
ing day-old chicks; brooding; sanitation, etc.

23. Bees „ *"

, Honey the principal interest, importance in fruit pro-

duction; management easy but imperative.

66

75

82

88

96

105

112

116

125

CONTENTS

24. Greenhouses 128

Standardized styles preferable to home built, ad*
vantages, sizes desirable, avoidance of mistakes,
types of houses, ventilation, heating, greenhouse
builders’ contracts and propositions

25 COEDFRAUES AND HOTBEDS 136

Invaluable to start seedlings, limitations of each,
types of each, how and where to make them,
hardening-off plants, electric heating and regulation
most desirable

. 26 Soils and Their Care 146

Nature’s soils injured by man, reclamation, types
of soils and how to handle them, humus, how to
judge soil values, soil erosion and its prevention

27. Manures 154

Stable manure best, why, scarcity and cost, fresh
vs. rotted, dried and pulverized, amounts to apply,
functions in the soil, experiences and experiments

,28 Commercial Fertilizers _ 159

Supplements to manures, organic and inorganic;
value of each, cautions in using, composition, most
important unmixed ones, functions of each, “mixed
goods”, home mixing, determining soil needs, fer- <■
tilizer distributors, concentrated goods

29 Green Manures and Cover Crops 166

Humus suppliers, importance, savers of soluble plant
foods, developers of others, some gather costly nitro-
gen, prevent soil washing, deep freezing and soil
heaving, collect fallen leaves, aid drainage

30. Lime

Functions in soils neutralizes acidity, makes condi-
tions favorable to growth of bacteria, improves physi-
cal properties of soil, experimental data, when and
how much to apply, must not be used with nihnure

31. Compost 17 ^

Importance in gardening, especially under glass, ways
to make it, best seasons to start It, handling for best
results

CONTENTS

ttum

32. Chopping Systems

Rotation— methods dependent upon types of cash
crops grown; good and bad sequences; double crop-
ping — companion, succession, marker and partnership
crops, examples of each and methods of h a n d l i n g.

33. Son. Subface Management

Effects of tillage; when and how to till; right mid
wrong implements and ways to use them; deepening
soils to increase water capacity and root range;
trenching methods; good tools for various purposes.

34. Weeds

Their signific a n c e and control; species and size sug-
gest character of soil; annuals, biennials and peren-
nials, whoa and how to destroy.

35. Tools

Kinds needed dependent upon type of soil and work;
essential and non-essential kinds; good and poor
styles; storage, cleanliness; oiling, sharpening, etc.

36. Re-making a Neglected Obchabd

Importance of competent advice before attempting
such work; many trees not worth reclamation; how
- v to determine useful ones; tree surgery not desirable
from income basis, personal appraisal methods; ren-
ovation methods.

37. Fhuit Thee Phuning . . .

Principles; applications; methods good and bad;
times to prune; tree architecture; building strong
trees; vine "and bush training and pruning; knowl-
.- edge of flower bud formation and position essenffai ,
- i ,v .

38t Grafting Fruit Trees .

X 'Simple methods; trees not to graft; best ones and best
*- ‘ branches to. use; .how to get and keep scions; time to
grafft; . grafting waxes ; paraffin; repair or bridge graft-
ing to save girdled trees.

39., How Tp^Ayoro' NuhseBy Stock Losses , 4 i

ix

PACK

177

182

196

200

206

213

223

232

\

X

oumi

CONTENTS

planting; bearing age trees unsatisfactory, young
stock best to order, pruning after planting, treat-
ment of Y-crotch trees, staking, label removal

40 Vegetable Chops to Avoid and to Choose 239

Quick and slow maturing kinds, staple and fancy
kinds, high and low quality varieties, good vs. poor
keepers, kinds saleable in several ways

41. Seeds and Seeding 243

Types of seeds, effect of weight on sprouting and the
crop, seed testing, age of seed, seedsman’s reputa-
tion, "special stock” seed, seedsmen’s trial grounds,
seed growing, selection, sowing times, temperature,
depth, etc

42 Transplanting 253

Stages of development, pre-watering, preparation of
soils and flats, lifting, pncking-out, spotting board
and dibble, depth, watering, hardening, planting in
the open, after-care

43 Plants for Sale 261

Often highly profitable near town of amateur garden-
ers, general and special stocks and sales, sales meth-
ods, advertising

44 Something to Sell Every Day 265

Crops in demand, crops that “work over well”,
pickles, jams, jellies, juices, syrups, preserves,
“canned goods”, eggs, chickens, ducks, honey,
plants, flowers

45 Strawberries 267

Regular season and everbearing kinds, culture, , sys-
tems of training, after fruiting, what?, companion
and succession crops, quickest fruit to bear, often ,
highly profitable, every farm should have them

46 Grapes 231

Planting, pruning, training, precocious and annual
fruiting, long season of fruiting by successional ripen-
ing of varieties and storage

CONTENTS

•

si

cm . Amt ,A8B

47 . Bosh and Cane Fruits . 291

Raspberry, blackberry, currant, gooseberry, dew-
berry, blueberry, varieties, culture

48 . Small Farm Fruit Gardens _ 299

Does the ordinary farm orchard pay?; investiga-
tional experiment, improved methods of cultivation;
varieties for home use, sequence of ripening; lay-out
of orchard and small fruits

49 . Selection of Tree Fruits 308

Varieties to choose, type of trade to work for; gen-
eral market, roadside sales, personal trade; succes-
sions! ripening to hold trade; filler trees and other
fruits, inter-tilled crops to help pay costs of de-
velopment.

50. Storage of Fruits and Vegetables 317

Methods, good and bad for various types of crops;
root cellars, pits, storage houses, lofts, arrangement;
ventilation, cooling, heating, sanitation, fumiga-
tion

51. Essentials of Spraying and Dusting 330

Spraying, dusting and other methods effective when
properly used, fruit and vegetable insect enemies

Appendices 341

Index 387

THE PURPOSE OF THIS BOOK

When you plan an auto trip, you wisely consult a road map
to discover the safest, most direct and pleasantest way to
your destination When you are actually on your way, you
follow the signs and obey the signal lights, especially at the
cross-roads, the branches and through the cities Often you
may have the choice of several routes and often you may
be in a quandary, but by consulting the map and obeying
the signs, you ultimately reach your goal

This book aims to be a “road map” which traces some of
the best routes along which you and your family may travd
to happy, prosperous and interesting lives It not only indi-
cates the safest routes but, what is even more important, it
particularly warns against blind alleys and side roads that
lead to disappointment if not disaster In this respect it
differs from the usual rural life book which depicts only the
pleasant features of farming So for this reason, if for no
other, it should be of signal service to you, especially if it
prevents your making the serious mistakes commonly made
by people who move from the cities and towns to the
country

SPECIAL NOTE

This new edition should be of even greater service to you,
reader, as a reference book because many tables and much
new data have been added to the Appendix They have been
placed there so as not to interfere with the ease of reading
the general text In most cases their connection with the
text have been indicated by reference to the chapters to which
they apply The other instances have no direct textual cross
reference Glance them over now to become familiar with
them

, The Author

I

INTRODUCTION

Many a wreck has been the result of taking the family to the coun-
try, and afterwards having part or all of it become thoroughly dis-
satisfied There are so many rough realities m a life of this kind that
it takes the poetry out of the visions of joy, peace, contentment and
success that arise in the minds of many

H W Whey,

In The Lure of the Land

P eople who think they “would like to have a little farm”
naturally fall mto two groups, those who are sure to
fail and those likely to succeed This book is written to help
both' Its presentation of advantages and disadvantages, es-
sential fanning principles and practises should enable you
to dedde in which class you belong and whether or not you
would be foolish or wise to risk making the plunge. In either
case it should be worth many times its price because, on the
one hand it should prevent fore-doomed failure, and on the
other, show you how to avoid delay, disappointment, per-
haps disaster, but attain the satisfaction that characterizes
personal and well directed efforts in farming
If your experience in the country so far has been confined
to vacations or summer residence and if your reading has
been limited to literature that depicts the attractive features
of farm life in vivid colors but purposely or thoughtlessly
glosses over or fails to emphasize the objectionable ones you
mil doubtless be shocked at the stress placed in this book
upon the drawbacks My reason for doing this is that I want
to present conditions not only as I know them to be but as
you are almost certain to find them. “To be forewarned is to
be forearmed ”

You may already know die country in summer, perhaps
in spring or autumn^maybe, during all the “growing

2

FIVE ACRES

season” — but do you know what it is to spend the winter in
the country? How would you like to be snowed in as my
family and I have been so that for ten weeks neither you
nor your neighbors could use an automobile because of the
deeply drifted snow? Can you and your family stand the
isolation usually characteristic of farm life? Do you know
from experience the meaning of hard, manual work from
dawn to dark — and then by lantern-light? Are you prepared
to forego salary or income for months at a stretch? I don’t
seek to frighten you but merely to indicate that though farm
life has its joys and satisfactions it also has its drawbacks

No matter in which of the groups mentioned you place
yoursdf , it is natural that you should ask whether I am a
practical man or merely a professor or a writer 1 Though I
must confess to having held professorial and editorial posi-
tions, these were because of my familiarity with practical
matters My experience began before my earliest “little red
schoolhouse” days and, barring interruptions, has continued
until the present

My boyhood duties included not only the usual chores of
the farm and those connected with fruit and vegetable gar-
dening, poultry and bee-keeping, horse and cow care, but
canning and pickling, soap and candle manufacture, meat
curing and wine making, in fact, practically everything
which characterized farm life only a remove or two from

pioneer conditions ,

As my father, until my young manhood, was a renter 01
one place after another, I not only learned the disadvantages
of this style of husbandry but gamed considerable experi-
ence by correcting the mistakes of former tenants (and even
owners*), especially in making neglected orchards, vine-
yards and gardens productive, and in learning how o
manage a wide variety of soils

At various times I worked on five farms, on one or .an-
other of which the leading features were dairy cattle, sheep,
gram, hay, fruit, vegetables and bees As the owners of these
places were good farmers and communicative I learn
much from them imeddition to how to handle tools and im- f
plements effectively j At 'one tune I owned a fruit fcum witn
poultry as a side line, at smother I managed the fruit de-

Kg X. Potato Upper In cultrvated ground, nuddle,

unner straw mulch, lower, under pgper muldb ^

l'

4

FIVE ACRES

partment of a produce-raising concern, at still another
planted about fifty acres of orchard and vineyard for a com-
mercial orchardist. As occasion has presented I have also
worked in greenhouses and nurseries
Though, like a politician, I might “point with pride” to
some personal successes I would rather present more sig-
nificant ones made by others Conversely, as some of my /
mistakes taught me more than the successes I prefer to hold
them up as “horrible examples” (instead of the errors of
others ' ) . So you, Reader, may “henceforth take warning by
my fall and shun the faults I fell in!”

2

CITY VS COUNTRY LIFE

Farming must be a family affair just as much as it has ever been,
but the modem way is not to make a drudge of any person, adult or
minor The work of the farm demands system and departments Each
person who is required to perform any of the labor should have it so
shaped that it will stimulate energy, sense of responsibility and love
for the calling

C C Bowsheld,

In Wealth from the Soil

O ne of the most striking characteristics of each “depres-
sion period” is the tacit acknowledgment of city
dwellers that “the farm is the safest place to live,” for
though there is each year a migration from the country
to the city and a counter movement to the suburbs and a
less pronounced one to more agricultural environment, the
movement becomes an exodus when business takes a slump
and employees are thrown out of work
So long as the income continues the employee is prone to
quell what desires he may have for rural bfe and to tolerate
the disadvantages of urban surroundings rather than to drop
a certainty for an uncertainty; but when hard times arrive
and his savings steadily melt away he begins to appreciate
the advantages of a home which does not^gobble up his hard-

5

CITY VS. COUNTRY LIFE
cpmpfl money but produces much of its up-keep, especially

in the way of food for the family.

More than this, however! He realizes at the end of each
year in the city that he has only 12 slips of paper to show
for his perhaps chief expenditure — rent; that he and his
family are “difi dwellers” who probably do not know or
want to know others housed under the same roof; that his
children “have no place to go but out and no place to come
but in”; in short, that he and they are ekeing out a narrow-
ing uneducative, imitative, more or less sdfish and purpose-
less’ existence; and that his and their "expectation of life” is
cWfrpnpri by tainted air, restricted sunshine and lack of
exercise, to say nothing of exposure to disease.

Contrasted with all these and other city existence charac-
teristics are the permanence and productivity of land,
whether only a small suburban lot or a whole farm; the sdf-
reliance of the man himself and that developed in each
mpmVipr of his family, the responsibility and satisfaction of
home ownership as against leasehold; the health and happi-
ness typical not only of the life itself but of the wholesome
aggnrintinn with genuine neighbors who reciprocate in kind
and degree as few city dwellers know how to do; the prob-
ably longer and more enjoyable “expectation of life”; but,
best of all, the basis and superstructure of true success-de-
velopment and revelation of character and citi z en sh i p in
himself, his wife, sons and daughters.

Whidi, think you, is the better citizen, the man who pays
rent for a hall room, a hotel suite or a “flat,” or the one who
owns a self-supporting rural home and therein rears a family
of sons and daughters by the labors of his head and bis
hands and their assistance?

In -a poignant sense city existence is non-productive; it
deal^with'what has been produced dsewhere Moreover it
is dependent upon, “income” to supply "outgo” and in the
great majority of cases has nothing to show^— not even char-
acter — for all- the, time -and effort spent. .Country life re-
verses this order; it ndt-pnly produces “outgo” to supply
“income” but when well ordered it provides' “surplus ” Nay,
further, it develops character in'th'e man and each member
of the family. Nothing so well illustrates this fact as “ Who's

6

FIVE ACRES

Who in America,” a survey of which will show that the ma-
jority of the men and women listed in its pages were reared
in rural surroundings Here they learned not only how to
work and to concentrate but inculcated that perhaps hard-
est and ultimate lesson of all education, obedience, suc-
cinctly stated in Ecclesiastes; “Whatsoever thy hand findeth
to do, do It with thy might ”

Of course, decision to renounce city existence for country
life is not to be hastily made; however, for the health, the
joy, the knowledge, the formation and development of char-
acter and the foundation of a liberal education there is no
comparison But what, do you inquire, is a “liberal educa-
tion?” Let us listen to that great scientist, Thomas Huidqr

“That man has a liberal education who has been so
trained in youth that his body is the ready servant of Ins
will and does with ease and pleasure all the work that, as a
mgdhanism, it is capable of; whose intellect is a clear, cold
logic engine, with all its parts of equal strength and m
smooth working order, ready, like the steam engine, to turn
to any kind of work, and spin the gossamers as well as forge
the anchors of the mind, whose mind is stored with the
great and fundamental truths of nature and of the laws of
her operations, one who, no stunted ascetic, is full of life
and fire, but whose passions are trained to come to Imei by
a vigorous will, the servant of a tender conscience, who has
learned to love all beauty, whether of nature or^of art, to
hate all vileness and to respect others as himself

Where, I ask, can a boy or a girl acquire and develop
such qualifications so well as on a farm, well managed y
loving parents who are enthusiastic business and domestic
heads of the enterprise and who explain and insist upon
obedience to the laws of nature as well as those of the tana
and who live in harmony with their neighbors?

TRIED AND TRUE WAYS TO FAIL

3

TRIED AND TRUE WAYS TO FAIL

7

Almost any farm needs a much larger ■working capital than the pro-
prietor provides The more successful the farm is, die more it absorbs
or ties up capital. It pays to fare the extra capital needed, precisely as
one would hire extra teams for ice — or silage— harvest

David Stoke Kelsey,

In Kelsey’s Rural Guide.

Anybody can buy a farm; but that is not enough. The
farm to buy is the one that fits the already formulated
general plan — and no other 1 It must be positively favorable
to the kind of crop or animal to be raised — berries,
vegetables, or what not. To buy a place simply because it is
“a farm” and then to attempt to find out what, if anything,
it is good for, or to try to produce crops or animal^ experi-
mentally until the right ones are discovered is a costly way
to gain experience, but lots of people will learn in no other.

Even supposing that the farm discovered is exactly suited
to the branch of agriculture decided upon — where is it lo-
cated? Are there good neighbors, schools, churches, doctors,
stores, electric power and bus lines and other features of
civilization near by? How are the roads kept, winter and
summer? What about taxes? Still more important, how and
where can its products be marketed? “Before deciding on
a spot for a garden,” wrote Peter Henderson, 75 years ago
in Gardening for Profit , “too much caution cannot be used
in selecting the locality. Mistakes in this matter are often
the-sole cause pf want of success, even when other condi-
tions are' favorable.”

Failure in other instances is due to lack of either “invest-
ment , or “working” capital or both; for though one may
havesuffiaent funds to buy and perhaps stock a place, other
moneys must be available to carry the venture until the
cash crops’ are able to produce them. For instance, though
certain vegetable crops and everbearing strawberries may
make individual cash returns within a few months of beinir
planted, “regular season” strawberries require 14 or if

8

FIVE ACRES

months, bush berries, grapes and asparagus three years;
peaches four or five and apples from five to ten or even
morel How is one to pay expenses, taxes, insurance; in fact,
how is one to live until they pay for themselves and some
thing besides?

This was the fix that an acquaintance got into As his
case is typical a rehearsal of its main features may serve

SHowtnq Haw S hallo Well Pump
Can Be Used To Elevate VfaterMo
Pneumatic Pressure lank Situated
In Basement. A J-crgcc S13C
As A Rule, Is Required, All Piping
Mast Be IVotect from Frost As Well
flp>E V P um P- DischorqcPipe. £ Should

• '•/%. Laid In A Perfectly 5lraiqfif
Line. Hofre AirChamberB.

In Basement.

j I in Pip* *

A. Hot More Than lOOFeet In A Vertical Direction
Pressure Inlank Not To Exceed iB®. Enlarge One
Distance Is More Dion 200f\ . £. Connect 5»rrfch At Pressure Tank.

Fig 2 Electric pumping of water to pressure tank

as a horrible example and warning to some reader at present
headed that same way! He had bought a farm on a good
road and good for his purpose but — seven miles from the
nearest local market town. There was considerably, more
land than he needed, especially as nearly a third ,0f it, was
second growth woodland on which he paid taxes But got no
return except a little firewood The house berng an ‘old one
and about as well ventilated as a com crib',, was inade-
quately heated by stoves, so he ins t a l l ed a furnace, it lacked
plumbing and electric current so he put these in These im-
provements reduced his capital but did not increase his in-
come from the place With high hopes he planted and cared
for 1,000 fruit trees and had plantings of small fruits For

TRIED AND TRUE WAYS TO FAIL 9

three years he strove to make ends meet but just as the trees
were ready to bear their first crop he was obliged to sell —
fortunately not at a loss of actual cash but at one of time,
effort and hopes.

Another common cause of failure is tumefaction of the
cranium, popularly known as “big head'” Though this
malady is not limited to people who take up farming it is
perhaps most conspicuous and most frequently character-
istic of city people who start in this new line, especially the
poultry branch With fine nonchalance they disregard funda-
mental principles, turn a deaf ear to the voice of experience,
adopt crops unsuited to the local conditions or without re-
gard to the market demands, and so on Usually not until
the disease has run its course is there hope for such cases,
but after the most virulent ones have been well dosed with
ridicule or have paid a heavy fool tax the victims may not
only recover and become immune but may in time admit
that farmers, like Old Man Noah, “know a thing or two!”

After they have taken up farming, many a aty man and
his wife — particularly his wifel — have run the gamut of
emotions through all the descending scale of delight, grati-
fication, pleasure, surprise, perplexity, annoyance, disgust
and exasperation (a full octave 1) to discover how popular
they have become since moving to the country. Not only do
their intimate friends drop in unannounced on fine Sundays
but less and less intimate ones even down to people who just
happened to live around the block arrive in auto loads and
all expect to remain for dinner, perhaps supper also I
[[r This sorjj of thing is highly unfair, first because the city

mends” never return the courtesy, second because un-
reasonable amounts of produce — especially chickens eggs
and butter — are wasted (yes, wasted because there’ is no

tbertif 3nd tWrd ’ because of worIt , partic ular ly

Sunday after Sunday one wife of my acquaintance
such a slave of herself as cook and hostess that at last her
husband laid down the law. In brief he said: “These neoole
come only for your good dinners. They drain your enereies
and our profits We must stop both losses” And they did!

As you will probably have to solve the same problem let

10

FIVE ACRES

me tell you the answer. For Sunday dinners have corned
beef and cabbage, beef stew or hash! Good luck to you! I

Among various other ways which help lead to failure are
unfavorable soil, undrained land, rocks and stones, wrong
crops; improperly prepared and tilled land, too large area
devoted to lawns and ornamental planting, excessive time
devoted to pets, especially such as occupy areas that shoul d
pay profits, inadequate manuring or fertilizing, failure to
fight insects and plant diseases and many others

In farming as in every other enterprise, success depends
primarily upon the man who undertakes it Not everybody
who starts will succeed On the other hand the man who has
the following personal qualifications, no matter what his
previous calling or location may have been, stands a good
chance of succeeding Natural liking for the business is the
most important asset because it will assure willingness and
patience to work and be painstaking, to be open-minded
and to be as alert to detect irregularities as to adopt and apply
new knowledge

Farming is a business characterized by abundance of
small but essential details which demand close observation

and application to prevent loss In few businesses are clean-
liness, orderliness and timeliness of so much importance, for
without them weeds, pests and diseases thrive and profits
fail to appear Above all the farmer must be enthusiastic, a
condition that will become permanent and characteristic as
soon as the business shows a profit

Of all the many farms I have visited that of a Delaware
County, New York, fanner presents fewer natural factors
that might suggest success than any other More than 80 %
of it is “on edge,” rocky, stony, marshy, or otherwise un-
fit for cultivation In fact, to quote the owner, “it is just the
kind of farm that no sane man would think of buying!” He
inhented it from his father who “bought it for its timber
and couldn't sell it after logging ”

If any farmer ever had excuse to fail this man had, but

every year he makes it pay! Moreover he uses less labor
than does many another farmer more favorably located He
grows com and hay on the tillable land, grazes the hillsides
and marshes, feeds dairy cattle, makes butter, and gives

WHO IS LIKELY TO SUCCEED?

11

the shim milk to hens for the production of eggs and meat
These three products — butter, eggs and dressed poultry —
which constitute his “money crops” — he sends by express to
city customers who pay a premium above market prices
quoted on a specified week day The manure goes back to the
land which is thus kept in highly productive condition.

As this man “capitalized his drawbacks” — thought his
problem through — and deliberately formulated the plan
which has worked well, his case may be taken as an indica-
tion that one of the surest ways to succeed is to have a
definite plan and a definite goal To attempt to farm with-
out either is merely a form of gambling The penalty for
one’s folly is a loss surer than in a lottery.

4

WHO IS LIKELY TO SUCCEED?

If a man would eater upon country Me m earnest and test thoroughly
its aptitudes and royalties, he must not toy with it at a town dis-
tance, he must brush the dews away with his own feet He must hrm g
the front of his head to the business, and not the back of it

Donald G Mitchell,

In My Farm of Edgewood

I f any one thing is more essential than any other in every
branch of fanning it is that the owner personally direct
all operations He cannot be an absentee farmer and he
cannot entrust his interests entirely to hirelings However
unlffis he is expenenced he is incompetent to direct any Dart
° f p ^ 1 necess ®fy ? r advisable work; so an even more funda-
mental essential is that he not only learn to do every kind
jrfwk himself but become a keen observer and logical

To apply these statements to you- The important noin k
about making yourself proficient and thinking while ner-
^ operation ate that you will thus f£t teadi
yomself the how, why and when; second, by thinking as you
ork, you can discover quick ways, short cuts and timS

12

FIVE ACRES

®f v . ers ’ and you will thus make yourself competent
to teach your helpers how to do the work in the ways you
have proved to be good, if not best This wfll mean both
toat you will be entitled to their respect as a director and
™ fl d wor ^ done efficiently and economically
Rook farming,” formerly a term of contempt, is now
recognized as a good thing in its place But without practise
°°. hook, not even this one ( I ) can make you either pro-
ficient or competent in any branch of farming All it can do
is to inform you — present ideas, methods, practises, tables,
illustrations, etc,, for you to digest and utilize as occasion
may arise Until you have tested them by actual practise
you cannot know how practical they are
In farming, more than any other business, you must teach
yourself, for every day during even the longest lifetime will
bring its problems and lessons Reading and listening to
lectures, radio talks, etc , though important and often help-
ful, are poor substitutes for observation and translation of
the observations into terms of unders tand ing, decision and
action when this last shall be necessary or advisable
One of the most profitable habits you can form is sys-
tematically, every day, to go over at least part of your
premises in a leisurely, scrutimzmgly thoughtful way, and
the whole of it at least once each week throughout the year
to reap the harvest of a quiet eye and fill the granary of
your mind with knowledge of the habits of hdpful and
harmful animals, birds and insects, to observe and under-
stand the characteristics of plant growth from the sprouting
of the seed through all the stages of stem, leaf, flower, fruit
and seed development, to note and interpret toe behavior
of plants, poultry and animals undervaluing conditions of
heat and cold, sunshine and shade, drouth and wetness, fair
weather and foul, rich and poor feeding Here is not only
toe best farm school m which to learn toe duties you owe
your dependants (plants and animals) and yourself for your
own best interests, but in which to enjoy toe most delightful
compensations of farm life, for it gives toe thinking observer
mastery over his business, brings him en rapport with his
environment and in tune with The Infinite. _ '

If you are a city man all this at first will be a foreign

14

FIVE ACRES

language to you; you will have to teach yourself Nature’s
alphabet before you can read her messages In this respect
you will be at a disadvantage when compared with the
countryman One of your greatest handicaps will probably
be assumed superiority to “farm hands* and even fanners,
for what you may consider “a good education” too often is
really of small use in a country setting What if farm hands,
taken as a whole, do not intellectually compare with city
derks, salesmen and bookkeepers and do not perhaps as
quickly understand theories* They have the advantage that
they know from daily experience at least something about
soils, plants, animals, implements, tools and how to treat
For this reason they are far more valuable to them-
sdves and their farming employers than are raw recruits
from the dty.

In order to avoid being jeered at for your ignorance it is
usually advisable to tell your country associates that you
have had little or no experience and that you are eager to
learn because you have taken up the business to earn your
living therefrom You will then be respected for your attitude
and will not be likely to be made a laughing-stock

Even the city laborer who has had a garden for a year if
not longer is more likely to succeed than is the “white cd-
lar” man of “better education” who has not had the ad-
vantage of similar experience The proportion of successes is
surer to be with the laborers than with the derks, salesmen
and bookkeepers Why? They are trained to manual work
and they use what brains they have to make their muscles
obey them rather than to rely on “someone else to do the

dirty work ” ,, , ....

Then, too, such laborers have the endurance which white
collar men usually lack; they can stand dm 12 to 16 houm
a day which fanning often de m a n ds, especially during the
growing season. It follows from this that at the start, no
weaklings and usually no one “well along in years can
count on success in any branch of farming for a living,
though, if he have means to tide him over say three or pe*_
haps two years, the outdoor life will “make a cew man
him” and fit him for the more arduous but pleasing dunes m
die business.

FIGURES DON’T LIE

15

5

FIGURES DON’T LIE

He who would keep the innocence of the incipient landed gentry never
forgets that figures bear false witness

Richasdson Weight,
In Truly Rural

I am •willing to wager that you are far less interested to
learn that the United States produces an average of
about 70,000,000 watermelons a year than to remember that
one summer you ripened a score or a dozen of higher quality
than you can buy' Why? Because the “average” United
States watermelon, so far as you are concerned, is a myth!
It lacks the reality and especially the personal flavor of the
ones you grew yourself! In other words, for you and me
statistics are more uninteresting than perhaps anything else
we might have thrust at us — as juiceless as dried watermelon'
For this reason I quote them only when I think they are
likely to be of value to you Presumably you are more inter-
ested in your own personal achievements or those possible
for you to attain than in any maximum, minimum or average
of the nation So I usually rite individual cases because
these are likely to be of more practical use to you because
within your range of application If you want nation? ]
figures you will find them aplenty in the Census Reports and
in the Year Book of the United States Department of
Agriculture.

Now for some figures! These will interest you, I am sure
because you ran apply and profit by them According to
the Census (1) the "average American hen” lays about 85
eggs a year; yet records made with 17,640 hens (total dur-
ing 19 years) in the Connecticut Egg-Laying Contests
showed an average productivity of nearly double that— 164

016 “ neteen ! 31 ye® 1, average was 229 eggs
a hen! Still more interesting is the fact that during tlm
present century individual hen egg-laying ability hi in-
creased so startingly that several hundred hens have each a

16 FIVE ACRES

record of 300 eggs or more laid in a year — some even more
than 350 eggs 1

Such records are due mainly to breeding but are also
greatly aided by sanitation and rational feeding Though it
is probably not advisable for you, Reader, to attempt to
match such records at the start, what would you think of
yourself if you started with "average American hens,” kept

Fig 4 Plan of ice bunker and dumb waiter

these in unsanitary quarters and let them "rustle” for their
food? Of course you are not built that way* The records of
those Connecticut contest hens make you covet that kind of.
stock, especially when you learn that you can buy them as
day-old chicks for only a few cents more than “average
chicks would cost (Chapter 22)

Take a com growing example. On a test acre a farmer
produced 13% bushels of corn by using 200 pounds of super-
phosphate fertilizer On another acre 85 pounds of nitrate
of soda added to the 200 pounds of phosphate increased the
yield to 24 bushels But on an acre where he plowed under a
crop of hairy vetch prior to seeding with corn he produced
40 bushels 1 Many of his neighbors followed his example and
increased their yields by an average of 22 bushels an acre at
a cost of only $5.— a gain of $4 for $1 spent on seed!
Though these cases were in Alabama they may be duplicated
in other states by using the right legume as a cover crop

FIGURES DON’T LIE

17

A third example: In 'western New York a fruit grower has
a Baldwin apple orchard that, when I last spoke with him,
had produced 20 profitable crops of fruit in 22 consecutive
years Had this achievement been with Yellow Transparent,
Oldenburg, Wealthy or some other variety famous for regu-
lar annual bearing it would scarcely attract attention, but
because it was with Baldwin, a variety notorious for its
“off" and “on” years, it is something not only for the owner
to brag about but for other growers to emulate — you es-
pecially.

How was it done? Partly by liberal feeding and rational
good care but mainly by thinning the partially developed
fruit during summer 1 The effects of this practise are first to
get rid of inferior and worm-infested, cull specimens tha t
would have to be discarded anyway at or after harvest;
second, to divert the plant food from these inferior fruits to
flower-bud formation for the following season’s crop
to enhance the size and quality of the remaining specimens,
third, to distribute the fruit-bearing area more evenly both
over the trees and over the years. Not only did this grower
have choice fruit every year (except in the two when frost
killed the blossoms) but he paid the cost of thinning by
selling the later thinnings for vinegar-making As further
consequences he had choice fruit to sell when his neighbors
had little or none and the prices he received were higher
. than they received for their less attractive, less worthy
fruit

Hundreds, if not thousands, of farmers have increased
their yields of potatoes by the method detailed in Chap-
ter 10 *

Such instances as these — there are thousands of others

warrant the statement that the productive power of plants
and poultry, yes, and of dairy cows, though surmised by
investigative few, tested and proved by their “credulous
followers and. adopted by the more progressive fanners
has not even yet been suspected, much less believed by the
majority of producers. It also warrants the declaration that
other things being equal, a little farm well tilled will nro-'
duce more in proportion to the effort expended on it than
will one of larger extent under slipshod practise.

IS

FIVE ACRES

6

THE FARM TO CHOOSE

No one should control more arable land than he can maintain in a high
state of productivity, the four great factors of which are good seed,
suitable moisture, abundant available plant food and rational tillage
In a large majority of eases where failure, or partial failure of an
abundant crop is observed the meagre results are due to a partial lack
of one of these four fundamentals

Isaac Phillips Roberts,

In Introduction to Ten Acres Enough

O ften too little attention is given to the condition of the
soil and the lay of the fields with reference to ease of
cultivation * (Chapter 8 ) Crop land in itself is of little
value unless it is so situated that it can be made to yield
profitable returns through the use of labor and machinery
A farm valued at $100. an acre may be a much better bar-
gain if practically all of the land can be put to profitable
use than another farm of equal size purchasable at $50 an
acre, of which large areas are practically useless owing to
streams, swamps which cannot be drained, or rough stony
areas not suitable for pasture . , A ..

In choosing a farm, therefore, it is essential that not the
total area conveyed by the deed or contract be considered,
but the area available for profitable use Any additional land
may be really a liability instead of an asset, since often the
returns do not pay the taxes Many mistakes are made on
this point alone, the buyer often thinking that he can crop
the land but later finding it more profitable to let it grow

brush or woods . „ , , .

Another factor is ease of cultivation. If die land is i steep
or broken it is not practical to use improved machinery and
it is difficult to harvest crops by older methods Such fields
may possibly be worked but the cost of production is neces-
sarfly higher than on fields which permit efficient use of
labor and machinery. This difference in cost must be re-

♦Part of what follows is condensed from Selecting a Farm, Fanners
Bulletin, 1088

19

THE FARM TO CHOOSE

fleeted in lower valuation and hence in lower taxes and inter-
est or rental charges, otherwise the fanner must pay these
increased costs out of returns from bis own labor
The physical condition of the soil should receive first at-
tention particularly from the beginner with small capital
Often even on high grade farms soils get into poor condition
through a few years of mismanagement. It is easy to cause
damage to good land through improper tillage or careless
ha n dli ng. To correct such damage usually takes several
years

One should distinguish between soils which cannot easily
be corrected because of naturally poor physical condition
and those which through improper management are in poor
physical condition but which can be restored by good
handling. Putting a soil in prime condition for planting is a
fine art that can he fully learned only through long experi-
ence in handling the specific type of land involved
The depth of the soil is of great importance It should be
determined when the land is first examined Shallow soil is
often a liability Its utility is sharply limited for practically
all fanning purposes because it is cold and wet in spring, the
water table being close to the surface Later it dries out
rapidly and bakes hard It is quickly affected by drouth
, Shallowness is a common defect in many areas It may not
; necessarily be due to rock close to the surface but to hard-
pan

Depth can best be detected by the soil auger If it is
general or characteristic of the region it may be detected
by the tree growth since only shallow rooted trees will be
found there such as red and silver maples; whereas, deep
rooting trees such as black walnut and hickory will be
absent or greatly stunted

Closely connected with thin soils is drainage. A person
choosing a farm should make assurance doubly sure on this
point, first as to the natural drainage of the fields and
second as to the possibility of draining if artificial drainage
is necessary Most soils need drainage, at least in spots
(Chapter 18 .) e

In choosing a farm one can rarely find the ideal arrange-
i? ment of buildings and fields A farm which may be desirable

20

FIVE ACRES

in many other particulars may be undesirable in this re-
spect Saving of labor is highly important. Hence the ar-
rangement of fields and buildings may be such that tune is
lost because of irregularity of fields or because important
fields are far from the buildings The latter fault sometimes
cannot be remedied

In the Eastern States three factors have determined, more
or less, the location of the buildings: 1, Water supply, 2,
roads; and 3, area of arable land near by. In regions where
spring water is available the buildings were generally placed
so water could be piped to them Thus water supply had a
greater weight in determining the location than ease of
reaching the fields or the highway Often the best fields are
distant from the buildings or the buildings far removed from
the highway. Such arrangements greatly depreciate the value

of farms.

The arrangement of the building themselves, as regards
ease of doing chores or other work about them is important
Often planning was for one type of fanning which, having
been discontinued and another taken up, the buildings are
not suited to the specific type of farming now practised
Sometimes conditions may be such that alterations cannot
be made economically to Improve arrangement So here is
another point to determine when locating a farm.

Social conditions of the neighborhood, though of nomo-
ment so far as crop production is concerned, must not
overlooked. If the family includes children good and easily
accessible schools are essential But what are
taxes? How about churches and other institutions? Store,
lumber and coal yards? These have an important bearing
upon the desirability of the farm So has the d^cterot
the permanent residents. Such apparently extraneous
tions may make or mar the home life and com o
new farm family and either decide favorably for or agams

an otherwise desirable property.

No matter whether you decide to buy or to .

that you first thoroughly understand the fundam P
pies which govern fanning If you overlook or. 1 ®? ■

you are alm ost certain to waste both money and
to overcome some unsuspected handicap with w y

THE FARM TO CHOOSE

21

would not have to contend if your farm had been chosen
where these principles helped instead of hindered you.

Ask yourself: 1. Is the area large enough to produce a
profitable volume of business? 2. Is the soil suited to the
crops to be grown or the animals to be reared and to pro-
duce a profit? 3. Are the natural resources with respect to
crops and animals, and the environment with respect to
sales of products favorable to the development of a profit-
able business?

Mere size of place is not necessarily a factor; for many a
farm of several hundred acres pays only a small net income
or is run at a loss, whereas many a small one specially
adapted, well situated and well managed pays handsomely.
For instance, on Long Island scores if not hundreds of
market gardeners have grown wealthy on 5 acres or less.
Ordinarily and until one has experience, however, when the
area is small the gross income is small and so is the net.
Usually the deriding factor is the use made of effective im-
plements rather than with hand labor. To be of productive
value land, buildings and equipment must contribute tbpir
quotas of income.

Factors that contribute to farm income are: 1, Profit on
the uses of the land; 2, profit on the working capital; and ,
3, profit on the personal and hired labor employed. Capital
alone can do nothing, it must be worked; land not used for
crops or animals is an expense— for taxes, if for nothing
else; area if small or limited in its opportunities to employ
labor profitably necessarily curtails income except in such
cases as market gardening, but these demand considerable
hand labor. In fact, costs of production are proportionately
higher for small than for large areas because hand labor
instead of power . implements must be used

From all this it is evident that volume of business — size
of farm— -is perhaps the most important factor to insist upon
when choosing a farm. So before you buy make sure; 1,
that the property is potentially capable of producing the

nprpccartr unlnma T'L*- • . « . P _ c

that costs of production are likely to be econoS s that
the potential volume of business will yield a profit above all

22

FIVE ACRES

necessary costs and after deducting the value of farm prod-
ucts used fay the family. In short, the farm should give op-
portunity to use capital and labor profitably and to market
the products at a profit

/

WHERE TO LOCATE

Real property is defined as land and land only it does not include
anything growing out of the land or anything bu3t upon It . . . The
fundamental characteristic of real property is its permanence Land is
used for all the purposes of man, end its value . is measured by the
degree of such usefulness represented in money. The value is based
upon its capacity to produce profit ... at the prevailing interest rate ^
of money.

Edward TEL Gilbert,

La Practical Real Estate Methods

W here to locate is mainly a personal question In gen-
eral, however, yon will be wise to choose a property
in the climatic region with which you are already familiar;
for thus you may avoid costly mistakes due to Ignorance of
the peculiarities of some other region. The type of agri-
culture you wish to follow — dairying fruit growing poultry
raising, market gardening, etc— -should also influence yonr
choice of location- In general you are more likely to succeed
where the one 3'ou prefer is already well established than
elsewhere because such a locality has already been proved
favorable and you will have neighbors to help you . An ex-
perienced man may risk pioneering new to a locality; for
instance, the Western New York grape grower who moved
to Delaware and established commercial grape production
and thus increased the incomes of himself and the neighbors
who followed his example

Before deciding on a farm one of the most important
thin gs to do is to consult the official sofl survey map and report
on the district in mind. This is issued, by the. Department
of Agriculture and may be seen at public libraries or bought

23

WHERE TO LOCATE

from the Superintendent of Documents at Washington for
a small sum The map shows in color the location and extent
of each kind of soil within its area; the report describes the
various soils, discusses their adaptability to specific crops
and their productive capacity under approved systems of
handling The latter also gives a brief review of local farm-
ing and economic conditions at the time of publication and
thus supplies data upon which to base a rational system of
agriculture

With the knowledge acquired by this means it will be
easier to choose among several parcels of locally available
land because the map is large and detailed enough to sug-
gest types of soil in areas as small as even a few square
rods' But though easily possible to locate each soil type it
is important to consider various other factors which may
or may not affect the immediate and subsequent value of
each property

The character of the soil depends first upon the way it was
formed; for instance, from weathering of rocks in place as
on level and slightly rolling plains, from silt carried by
streams and deposited in valley “floors”, from accumula-
tions of vegetable matter in swamps as in muck lands, or
from glacial deposits of rocks of many mixed kinds
Even though the original character of the soil may have
been any one of these just mentioned or of others it may
have been so altered by man that it is rather better or
worse than at the start As a safe rule to follow, it is worse
-because cropping without adequate return of plant food
and humus — the popular short-sighted practise— will have
injured its texture as well as reduced its fertility Such con-
ditions are fairly easy for even a novice to determine by
personal examination and asking questions of both owner
(or tenant) and the neighbors.

One of the most important things to discover is whether
or not the land needs drainage or is already well drained

.< Cha P ter 18 0 Often this £.
formation may be discovered with one’s own eyes by notine
LwheUier there are wet spots, often indicated by growtS
°f, kullrushes, sedges and other water-loving plants- 2
rtaher tee are brooks or sprtags, te, s4eS£lte

— -ALTefcNATTHQ SYeTSM (I piq 33 — TfclGi -ZAQ BV-STSM

Fig 5 Tune-saving ways of cultivating (Chapter 8 )

25

WHERE TO LOCATE

drainage; 3, the elevation of the land itself, either above or
below other levels from or to which excess water may flow;
4, the depth of the soil; 5, whether a rock stratum or a
“hard-pan” is near the surface, determined by a soil auger
or by digging m various places

In the last case it is necessary to make sure that the
impervious layer (rock or hard-pan) can be economically
broken so excess water may descend to lower levels and
later ascend toward the surface by capillarity so plant roots
may get it. Hard-pan, when formed by plowing year after
year at a uniform depth while the ground is wet may be
broken by subsoiling or by dynamiting. Directions for the
latter may be obtained free from manufacturers of dynamite

One way to estimate the condition of the soil is to inquire
what classes of crops have been grown on the land dur in g
several years, how fertilized and what the yields have been.
If the sequence of crops for years has been hay and gr ain
continuously without adequate manuring or green man u ring
both the humus and the plant food may be at such low ebb
that several years may be needed to reestablish fertility and
therefore profitable crops. On the other hand, if manuring
has been liberal— a.t least 25 tons to the acre annually— or
if commercial fertilizers and frequent green manure or cover
crops have been the regular orders of management, the land
should be in good condition. This will be evidenced by the
character of crops growing upon the land.

If there should be no crops to examine the next best thing
is to note the character of vegetation already presen t. Beech
sugar maple, hickory, black walnut and white oak trees of
large size and positive thriftiness indicate rich land* white
pine, scrub oak, and scrawny trees of most species are tyoi-
Ca L°L poo , r 1 f ld; extra Gritty willows, poplars and alder
and elder bushes suggest too much water and probable need
of drainage.

Weeds, however, are more often telltales than are trees
and bushes because they follow cultivation, whereas laSe
trees usually precede it. It is not necessary to identify
species though this is desirable. What does count “tS
character of growth made by the weeds actually present
Lush, sturdy, very dark green, leafy growths indite

26 FIVE ACRES

the plants are well fed. espedallv with nitrogenous com-
pounds: but if the growth is pale sickly colored scrawny
and apparently eking out a miserable existence the lan d is
certainly not rich.

If there is abundance of sheep sorrel — small plants with
spear-head-shaped leaves with a tart taste — espedallv if the
plants be puny, the land is not only short of plant food but
is add, a condition not favorable to most cultivated crons,
but easily corrected with lime. (Chapter 30.) Ox-eye daisy,
yfla carrot and mullein in abundance and poorly developed
indicate lack of humus as well as fertility and prove tha t
the land has been badly mismanaged, for these plan ts can-
not stand either rich soil or rational tillage.

It need hardly be mentioned that if the land is stony,
rocky or hilly it is usually less desirable than land not so en-
cumbered. The cost of blasting out rocks and hauling away
stones may be prohibitive and the disadvantages and diS-
culties of cultivating hilly- land without having excessive
erosion are so great that these areas cannot usually be culti-
vated at a profit.

_ If adjacent land as well as that under consideration shows
similar characteristics the whole locality may be judged as
other highly desirable or undesirable, as the case may be:
but when the specific land shows that its apparent bad con-
dition is due to mismanagement as suggested by good crops .
near-by there will be hope that it may be reclaimed and
made as good as the best in the vicinity.

By keeping one's eyes open to all these and other objec-
tions and drawbacks even the novice may decide mam-
points for himself. For the most important points to discover
at the start are the objections; not the advantages!

LAY AND LAY-OUT OF LAND

27

8

LAY AND LAY-OUT OF LAND

The value of real estate rests on two fundamental factors; namely,
income capacity, and the certainty that the income will continue To
be able to decide rightly as to whether the mcome capacity is increas-
ing or decre asin g, or is beco ming more or less secure, to analyze clearly
the causes producing these changes, and to conclude correctly as to
the stability of such causes, one must have intelligence supplemented
by experience

Irving Rutland,

In Practical Real Estate Methods.

apart from the character and the condition of the soil,
xlLthe location of a farm and the crops to be grown two of
the most important factors that influence profit and loss are
the ‘flay” and the “lay-out” of the land Lay always refers
to natural features, lay-out, to artificial ones. Items in-
cluded in “lay” are elevation, aspect (or direction of dope),
and level. Each of these has a bearing upon the character of
farming that may be conducted.

For instance, other conditions being equal, a farm only
say 10' above sea level will be “earlier” and have a much
longer season than another in the same latitude but 1,000'
' above sea levd. Similarly a farm 10' above a large body of
water such as a lake or a wide river, especially on the lee
side, will be less likely to be affected by frosts in late spring
and early fall than another on a level, perhaps only 1,000'
away. Also a field at the base of a slope or in a “pocket”
between two or more slopes is surer to be frosty than the
higher surrounding land because cold air flows like water
from higher to lower levds.

Aspect generally refers to the tilt of the land. In com-
mercial orcharding, though carefully considered when choos-
ing the site of a large development, it is usually disregarded
so far as small areas in the tract are concerned, the planting
being continuous regardless of dope. In market gardening,
■ poultry raising and various other branches of farmin g, how-

Fig fi How sunlight strikes vegetable rows planted from north to south and from east to west

LAY AND LAY-OUT OF LAND 29

ever, aspect is highly important It may even mean the dif-
ference between large and small profits or even losses.

A slope toward die south is almost always the warmest
so is best suited to greenhouses, hotbeds and coldf rames, out-
door early crops and poultry raising. Next come in usual order
southeasterly, southwesterly, east, west, northeast, northwest
and finally north. The effect of a northerly slope is to retard
growth. Hence the flower buds of apricot and peadi trees
on a northern slope are less likely to be destroyed by frosts
which follow warm spells in winter and early spiring, than
in the same orchard where during the same cold snaps the
buds on trees on a south or southerly slope are killed.

The lay of the land modifies production; lay-out varies
the cost of operation; both affect profits When forest lands
were first cleared it was necessary to get rid of the wood,
so great piles were burned. Other quantities were split into
rails to make "snake” or “zigzag” fences. Many fences were
also made out of pine and other resinous tree stumps. Rocks
and stones had also to be removed before farming could be
done well, so these were made into walls from 2' to some-
times more than 10' thick.

As the fields were mostly small and as fences and walls
of these kinds require strips of ground 10' to IS' wide they
are wasteful of land and highly objectionable They propa-
gate weeds, shelter insects and animals that attack crops
and annually require time, labor and expense to cut the
growths of bushes and trees that start in them. The remedy
is to get rid of them and thus combine several small fields
into larger ones. Often this is easier said than done: for
though rail fences may be used for fuel, stump fences and
stone walls require considerable work to remove.

Not everybody whose farm is minced into little fields by
stone walls is so fortunate as I was when new roads were
bang buOt past my property. The stones of the interior and
inferior walls were given to the contractor. Thus at no cost

t0 WhI era li Sma t U fidd f Wer ® ^ 11110 a few large ones.

Another advantage of getting rid of walls and faces is

that the new fields are of far more regular form than the
4 JPjJ 1 Il T egular fiel , ds demand far more time to msmay
than rectangular ones of similar size. Especially is this the

30

FIVE ACRES

case when the length can be greater than the breadth; for
plowing, harrowing and other work may be done from end
to end thus reducing the number of turns Even with the
wheelhoe there is an appreciable saving of time in making
few rather than many turns (Fig S )

When full rows of any crop would produce too large a
quantity of any one vegetable parts of the row may be
shared by other crops that require the same treatment When
it is necessary to have cross paths, breaks of sufficient width
may be made in the rows across the area for this purpose
These will therefore not interfere with plowing, harrowing
or tillage as would permanent roads, fences or walls, the
whole area may be handled from end to end None but neces-
sary fences, roads or walks should be permanent
Advantages may be gained by having the rows run north
and south when the fields extend that way, because this ar-
rangement favors even distribution of the sunlight (Fig 6 )
Other features of lay-out that should be noted when
appraising a farm and when laying out the place after buy-
ing it are location of the well and the watering equipment
in the buildings and elsewhere, the presence and condition
(or the absence) of windbreaks, drams, lanes, lawns, shrub-
bery, orchards, berry patches, vineyards, etc

9

WIND-BREAKS, PRO AND CON

It is decidedly unwise to plant an orchard and rely for a windbreak
on a block of timber owned.by a neighbor One never knows when
the neighbor will decide to cut off the timber

Feed C Sears,

In Productive Orcharding

P erhaps on no horticultural question are the ‘pros so
obstinately pro and the “cons” so stubbornly con ss on
that of wind-breaks To hear the arguments we might almost
suppose that two radically different things were under discu -

WIND-BREAKS, PRO AND CON 31

sion instead of the same thing — but under different condi-
tions

Wind-breaks are by no means unmixed blessings or un-
mitigated curses In their proper places they will do all their
enthusiasts claim; but in wrong situations, the reverse The
whole matter simmers down to the local application and the
species of trees or shrubs used
Properly constructed, a wind-break is a wind-B-R-A-K-E,
not a wmd-s#o£ it checks the force of wind and thus may
gain many advantages, any one of which may be important
enough to warrant planting trees or shrubs for that purpose
alone But when a wind-break becomes a wind-S-T-O-P it
may become responsible for any or all the damages claimed
by its opponents. As the disadvantages are fewer than the
advantages let’s discuss them first.

When the trees or shrubs in a wind-break include species
which harbor orchard or garden insects or diseases they are
certain to prove a menace to domestic plantings. For in-
stance, wild cherry encourages peach borer and tent cater-
pillar, elms are breeding quarters for canker worms, wild
roses foster rose chafer, red cedars are alternate hosts for
rust disease of apple and quince But we don’t need to plant
such trees and bushes nor to let them stand if they are al-
ready growing in natural woods near-by
When wind-breaks are so close to gardens or orchards that
their roots rob the cultivated plants or trees of water and
plant food, or when their tops shade these plantings und uly
they exceed their jurisdiction; but that is our fault, not
meirs We should not have planted them so close, or should
have placed our gardens or orchards farther away
Sometimes wind-breaks may make areas in tVh- w
aimer than would be the case without their “protection.”
Because of this, damage may accompany spring or fall
jxosts In such cases the trouble is usually due to the wind-
break being a wind-stop. This condition may be prevented
by spacing the trees far enough apart to allow reduced air
movement through them, by reducing the number of trees or

fi±e? ready P aDtCd ' ° r by prunin S out some of the
The claim that wind-breaks are wasteful of land is by no

32

FIVE ACRES

means dear cut Often the land they occupy is worthless for
crop production or the advantages to be gained are of far
more importance than the quantity of produce that might
be gathered from the “waste space ”

Now let’s look at some of the advantages If the trees and
shrubs are conspicuous when in dower or in autumn colors,
especially when evergreens are induded among them, they
have an ornamental as well as a practical use that makes
them doubly valuable. In other cases, if we plant shadblow
(or juneberry), mulberry, hackberry, highbush cranberry
and other fruit and seed bearing trees and shrubs we may
attract birds away from our cultivated berries and yet gam
all the advantages of their aid in keeping down insects in
our gardening and fruit growing.

We may even insure direct profit from our wind-break by
adopting the California practise of planting fruit or nut
trees or bushes on the margins of thd area we seek to pro-
tect In that state English walnuts, almonds, apricots and
figs are popular for this purpose; in the East we might use
improved varieties of filberts, black walnuts, northern pe-
cans, highbush blueberries, elderberries, raspberries, black-
berries, or sugar maples for maple syrup and sugar making
When a wind-break has become well established before
planting the orchard, the fruit trees will grow straight in-
stead of bent or lop-sided, as they often do in windy sec-
tions unless staked It will also lessen the quantity of wind-
falls and the breakage of branches when loaded with fruit

or ice

During bloss om in g time the flowers on protected trees
are less likely to be blown off than where unprotected and
bees are more certain to do the work of pollenating, thus
insuring larger quantities of fruit. .

Similarly a wind-break facilitates— even msures—work in
the orchard under windy conditions, especially w winter
when pruning is done, in spring when spraying might he
useless or wasteful or inferior because of unchecked win ,
and in autumn when late fruit must be harvested

Wind-breaks are also important because they reduce
evaporation of water from the soil and tianspuation
the crop plants, particularly the leaves Thus they mitiga

33

WIND-BREAKS, PRO AND CON

the effects of drouth and winter injury which often follow a
dry summer and a wet autumn. Because of this they also
help the plants make better development and enhance the
size and q uality of thin skinned fruits such as strawberries,
raspberries and blackberries

The har mful effects of winter are lessened by the reten-
tion of leaves and snow on the ground, for in the lee of a

DIAGRAM OF WBMDBREAK WITH SNOWTRAP

f—

| ORIGINAL' SfWCNG 1 j-rf-j

SRAONG AFTER THNMNG
I I — — |

FARM BUUXNGS

RU3SAN WtXOW WHTESPRUCC AR80R VITAE
RED MAPLE WMTE PNC BALSAM FW

CHMESE ELM

norway me

NORWAY SPRUCE

DOUGLAS FIR

Fig 7. Windbreak and snow trap to protect farm buddings

wind-break where these collect the ground freezes less deeply
than where they are blown away, so the roots of fruit trees,
bushes and other plants are less likely to be injured be-
cause of their presence.

Along the sea and the great lakes shores where sand is
often blown for long distances inland, wind-breaks have
been found particularly useful to check the destruction of
crops and the burying of good soil
A still more important effect: They greatly the

physical comfort and noticeably reduce the cost of mainte-
nance of man rnd animals whose living quarters they shidd
from winter winds. Houses so protected require less fuel to

34

FIVE ACRES

maintain comfortable temperatures than do adjacent similar
ones not so favorably placed; and animals so sheltered need
less food to keep them in condition favorable to the produc-
tion of work, milk, eggs, and flesh

As a general thing dense plantings are desirable in inland
locations because wind coming over large expanses of ground
is likely to be colder in winter and hotter and drier in sum-
mer than that which passes over a large body of water.
Where sea or lake winds prevail the plantings may be more
open so as to allow the air to pass through with less check
than through dense plantings. Such plantings also avoid the
danger of still air which often occurs on the lee side of a
sea or lake shore wind-break

In general, no wind-break planting should be done before
a careful study has been made of the local conditions, es-
pecially with respect to air drainage — the flowing of cold
air from higher to lower levels. This must be assured to pre-
vent cold spots or “pockets.”

For inland plantings the coarser evergreens such as pines,
firs, and spruces have special value because they give dense
protection near the ground, for seashores and lake shores
these trees should be much farther apart but be supple-
mented by deciduous trees

Open wind-breaks, where needed at all on low lauds, are
better than dense ones because cold air naturally settles m -
such areas — unless means are provided for draining it away

to still lower levels , ,

Planting should be not less than SO', preferably 100 , away
from the principal area or buildings to be protected Its in-
fluence extends for a distance equal to 20 times its heigh,
that is, trees 30' tall influence the force of wind Tor 600 on
the level On the protected or lee side of a wind-break ot iu
to 30* is a calm zone where snow drifts dunng mnd-dnven
storms Hence the necessity of planting far back irom

buildings , „ -

The length of the planting will depend upon the area awl
buildings to be protected. It should extend at least 50 be-
yond the last building, or feed lot area. On rectangular farms
where length greatly exceeds width and an L-shaped wind
break would be inconvenient, greater protection may be had

WIND-BREAKS, PRO AND CON

35

by extending the planting 100' to 125' northerly or westerly
beyond the buildings.

Wind-breaks need well prepared soil to get a good start
Deep fall plowing and thorough spring discing, especially of
heavy soils, are essential Soils in sod should be plowed early
enough in fall to assure rotting of the sod On light soils the
plowed area should be covered with manure both to increase
fertility and reduce blowing and drifting of the surface soil
in winter and early spring.

Choice and size of trees will depend on type of soil,
general region, cost of trees and the primary purpose of
protection The most suitable are conifers Hardwood trees
are not recommended as part of permanent wind-breaks, ex-
cept under special conditions where a snow-trap or tempo-
rary protection rather than a high wind-break may be
needed for the young conifers.

Conifers should be at least three years old, once trans-
planted m the nursery, four-year and even five-year trans-
plants are recommended for white spruce, Douglas and bal-
sam fir Small seedlings or transplants may be used safely
but more cultivation will be necessary until they have grown
beyond the danger of weed and grass competition Hard-
wood trees one or two years old will usually be large enough.
Suitable trees may be grouped according to the kinds of
-soil to which they are adapted: Norway and Scotch pine for
light, sandy soils, Douglas fix, white pine, Norway spruce,
Chinese elm and red maple for light loams; white spruce,
balsam fir, arbomtse, cottonwood, ash and sugar maple for
heavy loams and days

Two or more spedes of trees in a wind-break provide a
more compact growth of foliage than when only one is used
espedally where spruce and arborvitie are used with open-
growing white or Norway pines The possible loss of one
species from a future insect or disease epidemic will thus
not destroy the wind-break Russian willow or cottonwood
may be used to give early protection while the slower coni-
fers are becoming established in their lee.

Where there is enough space three rows are desirable,
otherwise two For all suitable trees except arborvitae the
rows should be 8 apart and the trees 6' asunder For ar-

36

FIVE ACRES
borvit* they should be 6' apart and the trees 4' asm^r
should^ generally be slot the trea

be nlantp/^ 88 ^ 16 ?. ‘V* 1 ® rows ’ on fertiIe one s they should
be planted in checks because in 12 and IS years thev will

S** 6 ' * 8 '« Then by removing each alSte?ee ta

r °. W reraaini ng trees will be left in stag-
gered positions at wider spacing

!ff^Si,T eth0 ? com P act ^th throughout the

life of the wind-break Where arborvitae is planted, the origi-
nal spacing should be maintained Thinning will not be
necessary (Fig 7 )

Wmd-breaks depend for their usefulness largely on the
rare they receive for the first five or six years after plan tin g
Poultry and livestock must be kept out, perhaps by tempo-
rary fencing A mulch of straw, marsh or salt hay or saw-
dust 2' deep and a 12" in radius around each tree should
be applied within a few weeks of planting This will hold
soil moisture and help to smother* weeds. Sod growth around
the trees must be prevented

To avoid heaving by frost, a winter mulch 4" to 6" deep
of straw with a low percentage of manure should be applied
annually until the lowest branches are at least 2' long If
applied after the ground is frozen and preferably after a
light snow is on the ground there will be no danger of mice
nesting in it It should remain on the ground the following
summer to add fertility to the soil, prevent evaporation of
moisture and smother weeds

In wind-breaks where spruce and white pine are used
some summer shade is desirable during the first two years
Sunflowers, having small root systems, will not compete
much with the young trees and they have value for chicken
feed and silage One row should be sown for each row of
trees Three or four plants of a single flower variety are
enough between trees

When the wind-break extends easterly-westerly the sun-
flowers should be planted 18" south of the trees, in
northerly-southerly rows they should be directed in line with
the tree rows Thus the trees will have intermittent sunshine
and shade Conifers in a wind-break should never be pruned.

It is desirable to retain those brandies that grow near the

ESSENTIAL FACTORS OF PRODUCTION 37

ground. If trees have enough sunlight they will maintain
Hirfr foliage throughout most of their lives.

10

ESSENTIAL FACTORS OF PRODUCTION

Conservation in the broadest sense implies neither waste of product
nor waste of the forces and conditions which make high production
possible These forces are the environment under which the crop is
grown and the inherent hereditary possibilities within the seed or seed-
material

B M Duggab,

In Plant Physiology

W hoever said that “trifles make perfection, but perfec-
tion is no trifle” may not have had farming in mind
but in perhaps no one walk of life do easily applied princi-
ples and rules pay such big dividends as in the production of
food and the raw materials of clothing Strange as it may
seem, however, the United States Census and the Depart-
ment of Agriculture “averages” of production are in count-
less cases less than 50% those of “record” figures and per-
haps not more than 75% of easily obtained “good yields.”
Suppose we look at a few

As to milk production, the Department of Agriculture
Year Book shows an annual average of about 4,200 pounds
of milk per cow, yet, many wdl bred cows yield 20,000
pounds or more a year. It is evident, therefore, that Profes-
sor H H Wing is wdl within the truth when he dedares
that “the average production per animal in the United States
is scarcdy suffident to pay the cost of food and labor, to say
nothing of interest or profit on the investment.”

Why keep such animals when “good grade” cows, the
progeny of “record sires,” can be raised or bought at rea-
sonable cost with the almost certain assurance that they will
produce abundantly and pay good profit?

Much the same argument applies to hogs. “Razor backs”
eat ravenously, grow slowly, fatten poorly if at all. and

38

FIVE ACRES

when slaughtered consist largely of hide, bones and offal
Good “grade pigs” whose sires are of almost any breed cost
but little more to buy, much less to feed, grow rapidly, fat-
ten well, and when dressed are “almost all meatl”

Figures as to egg laying have been quoted already in
Chapter 5

Similar principles apply to seed. Not only is one variety
better than another but individual “strains” are worth more
than general stock because more prolific, or disease-resistant
or both and therefore more profitable even m the open mar-
ket and wholly regardless of whether or not they are to be
used for seed purposes

Though many of these strains are developed by farmer-
seedsmen (men who grow seed to be used for sowing) there
is no reason why you should not develop your own, at
least with some of your crops Many another man has done
so, increased his yields and profits, but still more important,
has added to his interest and enjoyment of fanning

Doubtless the two crops that farmers have most often im-
proved are corn and potatoes The methods are so simple
and the results so certain that I shall sketch them

If you can start your corn breeding with ears pick out
SO or 100 of the best you can find in the crib Be sure they
are properly cured specimens of good form and sum, well
filled and well rounded at both ends and each one pleasing
to your eye and your hand Lay them side by side on a table,
critically examine each under a good light in comparison
with the others and ruthlessly discard the poorest, toe next
poorest and so on until only 10 are left. These are to be your

nucleus for breeding . in nr

Before you shell toe grain from toe cobs pick out 10 or
20 individual kernels from various positions on eacn ear
(not including toe butts or toe tips which should be dis-
carded anyway). Keep each lot by itsdf so as to make a
critical germination test as detailed in Chapter 41 ,plaong
the kernels of each ear by themselves At toe end of wo
weeks you may not only know which ears have given to
largest percentage of germination but, if ^

taken daily, you will also know which '

sturdiest. These are toe ones to choose for growing

ESSENTIAL FACTORS OF PRODUCTION 39

“ear-to-the-row” test plot, which means that the seed from
each ear is to be sown in a row by itself.

During the summer examine the plants to make sure which
row or rows produce the sturdiest plants. Especially de-
termine the row which has the most two-ear plants and the
smallest proportion of stalks that bear nothing but leaves.
Cut out these latter individually and feed them to the cow
or make them into compost. At harvest time cut and cure
the two-row stalks of this best row by themselves and, for
the following year repeat the selection process already de-
scribed Also cut and cure the two-ear stalks from the other
rows and use the ears for sowing the general field or for
sale as seed com Each year it will be more valuable than
the previous year.

By following tins practise combined with critical selection
of ears that produce the best shaped and heaviest kernels
for a series of years many a farmer has developed a str ain
of com noted for its two-ear plants, its small number of
barren stalks, its heavy ears and yields — often 10% to
to 25% greater production than his original yields.

If the com you must start with is already shelled, pick
out 500 or 1,000 large, heavy kernels of good shape, lay
them side by side on a table and discard inferior ones until
only the 50% best ones are left Use these for planting the
first year; after which follow the method already described
when working with the ears.

With potatoes the method is as simple. Starting with
what stock you have, pick out the best shaped, good sized
(not necessarily the largest) , shallowest eyed tubers in much
the same way as described for com ears; cut each tuber in
quarters from end to end but keep each four pieces separate
from the others. Plant each piece in a hill by itself then
skip each fifth lull so as to keep the four pieces of each
tuber in consecutive hills. During the summer treat them all
alike, watch for differences of foliage, resistance to disease
and other points good and bad, and dig the weaklings for

new potatoes."

dig each hill carefully by hand and place
the tubers from each four hills together for judgment Dis-
card the groups of four that produce unsatisfactorily either

40

FIVE ACRES

as to size, number, irregularity or other defect When at
last only the one or two best are left store each lot by itself in a
cold but frost-proof cellar or pit and the following year re-
peat the method The discarded tubers each year are to be
used as general field seed or for sale as seed potatoes Thus
not only will the one or two best lots be improving but the
general seed and the field yields will be greater As with
corn, countless fanners have increased their yields at a
cost of only a little time and attention to the growing of
improved seed

Whether or not it will pay to carry out similar methods
with other crops is largely a personal matter depending
mainly upon the amount of each being grown However, any-
body may be the discoverer of a “rogue,” a “bud sport,” or a
“seedling” that by proper handling may be developed into a
new “variety” or “strain ”

The term “rogue” is applied to those plants which differ
from the variety sown in some respect but are certainly not
due to accidental mixing For instance, a yellow podded bean
grown from green podded stock, a purple tomato from scar-
let tomato stock or vice versa The term “bud sport” is ap-
plied to twigs or branches of trees and bushes whose foliage,
flowers or fruits differ from those of other parts of die
tree, for instance, a smooth skinned peach (called a nec-
tarine) which appears on a peach tree or a fuzzy skinned
nectarine (called a peach 1) borne on a nectarine tree The
Golden Delicious, Red Spy, and Red Tompkins King apples
are cases of this kind

If you have a case among bush or cane fruits or straw-
berries you may benefit from it, first in the production of
fruit and second from the sale of plants Let me cite a case
of this kind

One of my clients who had been growing strawberries by
the hill system for years happened to notice that one plant
bore nothing but leaves — no bernes This so piqued his
curiosity that he examin ed every hill in his patch and found
about SO plants that bore a liberal quart each He allowed
each of these to produce runners which he planted during
early August m a new bed When these fruited he allowed
only the heavy producers to develop runners for the next

ESSENTIAL FACTORS OF PRODUCTION 41

new bed At the end of 10 or 12 years he had developed a
strawberry strain so locally noted for its prolificacy that he
was besieged for plants which he sold at rather “stiff” prices
Thus he received the double profit already mentioned for
the time spent in his selection of plants
By keeping on the watch for such cases you may discover
some thin g of greater value than its parent and either your-
self profit by the sale of stock or of “scion wood” for propa-
gation or be of service to other growers.

The above dted methods and instances are only a few of
the special ways by which you may increase production.
Others include high quality seed, germination tests, rational
tillage, control of parasites and weeds, thinning of plants in
vegetable rows, thinning of fruit on trees, adequate range for
livestock and poultry, ample plant food, humus and water
in the soil. These and other practises are discussed in other
chapters.

In cases where cultivation must be done by horse or
tractor and the rows must, therefore, be spaced farther
apart than when the wbeelhoe is used it is essential, as a
time-saving factor, to make the rows long and few rather
than short and many so as to reduce the amount of time
necessary for turning at the ends Even so time may be saved
by skipping several rows when making each turning because
(Fig 5 ) less time is needed to make a long turn than a
short one, especially with a horse or a fast moving, heavy
or long-radius tractor.

Should a complete row be likely to produce more of any
one vegetable than would be needed it should be filled with
two or more kinds that require the same general cultural
treatment Figure 8 suggests a way by which the Illinois
Experiment Station (Circular 325) suggests that a well-
balanced farm garden may be arranged to provide a large
assortment and continuous supply of vegetables throughout
the growing season, for use fresh, canned and for winter
storage.

As will be noticed the plan indicates that sowings are to
be made at four different times This is because of the ef-
fects of frost and because seasons vary, some being early
others late in opening. For the latter season the time he-

42

FIVE XCRES

tween the early sowings should be increased in an early
spring and shortened in a late one. The first of these sowings
should be made about the time that the earliest trees, such
as silver and swamp (or red) maple open their buds See
Appendix for lists of vegetables

By taking advantage of the cool fall weather a second
crop of cool-season vegetables may be grown In the fall
garden the vegetables are grouped according to the length
of their growing periods and each group planted as late as
possible consistent with finishing growth before a killing
frost It must be remembered that fall garden vegetables do
not thrive in warm weather and that too early planting will
stunt some kinds and cause others to become coarse, woody

or pithy and unfit for use

Complaints of poor vegetable yields by growers who prac-
tise dean tillage, and reports of satisfactory ones by others
who used other methods have led to experiments whereby
such practises could be tested side by side for comparison
One of the most comprehensive of these series was con-
ducted by H O Werner and reported in a 40-page bulletin
(No 278) of the Nebraska Experiment Station Some of
the condusions are condensed as follows

Most vegetable crops can be increased and improved by
irrigation Straw or paper mulches are also useful Irriga-
tion will be found desirable at some time in practically
every season and often in many seasons Except for nasten-
ing seed germination in a dry spring, irrigation is seldom
needed before July and not after August It has been found
profitable with all vegetables but especially with those grow-
ing during these two months . . . . + u

Needless or excessive irrigation early in the Me of me
plants might cause the development of shallow root systems
However, vegetables should be kept gr°^ n g
Knobby, growth-cracked, hollow, rough-shaped, double and
otherwise undesirable vegetables are produced when growtn
is uneven, especially when a period of abundant m

oie of prolonged droafb When vegetables are ap-
proaching edible maturity the qnabty espeaany dnnaess,
flavor, sugar content and keeping quality, will be p
by irrigation water used sparingly

Fig 8 Well-balanced long row farm garden for family of sot (Sec Appendix for varieties )

44

FIVE ACRES

One inch of water, in one rain or from irrigation, should
maintain vigorous growth of most vegetables for five to
seven days during hot weather and 10 to 15 days in cooler
weather With smaller applications much more frequent ir-
rigations and a greater total amount of water are necessary
to maintain the same growth, and the final results are likely
to be less satisfactory Heavy applications of 2" or more
are also less desirable, because the soil will be poorly
aerated for a time and the loss from rotting, blight, etc , will
be increased

When applied during the night by the overhead system
with a pressure of about 35 pounds, 1" of water can be ap-
plied for 25' to 30* on both sides of the irrigation line in
about six hours On a hot, windy day when evaporation is
great, eight hours might be required

Where water under pressure is available the sprinkling
system is best because it distributes the water evenly, does
not pack the soil, can be used on sloping land without wash-
ing, and requires the least labor With one line of pipe the
gardener can irrigate from six to ten times as much land as
the line will irrigate in one position, the line being earned
from place to place and supported on posts or temporary
supports, wherever it is to be used

The problem of moisture can be solved to a considerable
degree by the use of two plats, one to be fallowed each sum-
mer In addition to supplying a moist soil this plan P r0 ™“*
many of the benefits ordinarily derived from a well planned

crop rotation , , , ,

The soil may be fall plowed and left rough over winter to

catch snow and avoid run-off Snow fences may be se P
catch snow in the portion to be used for the late or long
season crops They may be placed m another p . „

garden the next year to provide for the o

sition of crops Effective snow barriers may be made with^
row of corn shocks or even by several rows of standing com

P *The function of cultivation with vegetables is to
moisture by eliminating weeds, to close “P ^racte P
vide a loose, rough surface which will absorb ramf au ana
prevent "rua-off.’^Deep cultivation destroys many roots, re

ESSENTIAL FACTORS OF PRODUCTION 45

duces the yield ol most vegetables and is unnecessary. Shal-
low surface cultivation is recommended for all vegetables,
espe cially in unirrigated soils and in dry seasons.

Mulching gardens with straw or other litter such as hay
or manure is a practical way to increase yields and produce
vegetables of the brat quality. The benefits are greatest with
long-season crops and m dry years Though straw mulches
have increased the yields of nearly all vegetables their use
is not recommended with the early short-season crops such
as leaf lettuce, peas, spinach, seeded onions, cauliflower and
early cabbage With root crops such as carrots, beets and
parsnips their use does not appear advantageous and with
transplanted onions is of doubtful value The difficulties of
applying die straw more than offset the advantage which
most of these crops might gain.

Straw mulching has been found desirable with all long-
season crops except sweet com. As a means of increasing
yields and quality it is often almost as good as irrigation
Because of the lowering of the temperature and the in-
creased frost hazard, straw should not be applied until the
plants are well established

A mulch of 2" to 4" is adequate, deeper is unnecessary
and undesirable Between 10 and 15 tons of straw are
needed for mulching an acre, or about 500 pounds for
2,000 square feet The labor of applying straw is largely
balanced by the reduced labor of weed control. At the end
of the season straw mulches should be removed or burned
because of the unfavorable effect upon the soil when such
a large amount of dry organic matter is plowed under. This
is most serious with unirrigated or sandy soils [Instead of
burning, it is probably better to use this straw to make arti-
ficial manure M. G K.]

With potatoes the straw mulch should be applied before
the plants come through the soil. With other crops, such as
tomatoes, eggplants, and other transplanted vegetables, be-
fore transplanting or after the plants are well established,
preferably at the latter time.

If the spring plantings have been properly grouped as in-
dicated in the plan, the green onions, spinach, leaf lettuce,
turnips, kohlrabi and peas will occupy adjacent rows and

46

FIVE ACRES

will all be harvested in ample time to allow the ground to be
cleaned up and prepared /or the planting of fall vegetabV
It will also present the development of "a weedy, unsightly
patch.

The second and third plantings for the fall garden may
occupy the area of (lie early potatoes and onions the early
cahbace or the early sweet com
In order to take advantage of crop rot.'tmn the arrange-
ment of rows should be reversed each second year

The first planting of fall vegetables should ennri't of
kinds which require a growing period of Q 5 to IDS days:
Cabbage, cauliflower. Brussels sprouts, Italian broccoh. en-
dhe. kale, grown from seed sown sre or seven week; previ-
ously for transplanting Also pc-tsni (Chinese cabbagcl.
rutabaga, round beets and short carrots, sown where the
plants are to remain.

The second sowing should include kinds that require 65
to SO days to mature: Turnips, winter wdiMtrs, koMrib*
head and cos lettuce, round-seeded pei* (not wrinkled
seeded) Thc«c last rarely do as well in the fall as in spnnc

but arc usually worth while. ,

The third sowings should consist of only tho-c kind; wit
mature in 45 to 55 days: Spinach, mu.f.'rd, p< pjvTgns*.
forcing radishes. leaf lettuce, foUicu«.

Where coldframts arc available thc-e la<t may be had
until Christmas or even later witli nnl> Might pr.»:erti«" on
coldest nights They will all stand slight froM if not allowed
to thaw too rapidly or In he e\pn-ed to the direct ray* of t r
sun while frown Watering with cold wate«- while from* v.Pl
"draw the frost" without injuring them.

Tim cuccc.-sful garden i; well planned. tirltrir* a lirr-
varittv of vegetable.: by succc-Mon <mvin,’ -uppli^ af.f-

throughout the year; pay; b*(t»r for th- M e * re; |iur-
thru d<v* any other equal nteV. i* ktp. fn* f** ^
airfare tilhw while the idling* at*
heavily fertile!. fill ptoM or due Wl t. vr i over *£«
and workt-r! dor n by * pring care to m d r ft » t fl ' ^

RENTING VS. BUYING

47

II

RENTING VS. BUYING

Tire hfe of the husbandman of all others is the most delectable It
is honorabl e, it is amusing, and, with judicious management, it is profit-
able To see plants rise from the earth and flourish by the superior
skill and bounty of the laborer fills a contemplative mind with ideas
which are more easy to be conceived than expressed

George Washington.

N o one reared in the country need be told whether it is
better to own or to rent farm property, he knowsl
But the city dweller who is planning to take up any branch
of farming may well consider the pros and cons of both
leasehold and ownership before he derides upon either. So
far as the beginner is concerned, renting farm property has
several outstanding advantages, among which the perhaps
most important are

1. No capital need be invested in permanent features such
as land, buildings, fences, orchards, vineyards, repairs or
improvements, these are for the landlord to supply because
they are permanent Sutures on the land If the tenant makes
repairs or improvements, builds houses, or plants orchards he
cannot remove them or charge their cost to the landlord un-
less a specific agreement in writing has been signed before-
hand by both parties to that effect.

2 Such capital as the tenant does invest may all be for
machines, tools, animals, portable houses and other “loose”
property which he may take with him when he moves.

3 All crops he plants may be annuals which, because
they mature in one season or less, may all be sold the sam»
season

4. Day-old chicks may be bought in spring and sold in
the fall, thus, if desired, leaving no stock to winter over.

, S. Even though the first season may not make ends meet
— as' is more than likely I — the beginner may often be able
- to decide from this one season’s experience whether or not
he and his family are likely to adapt themselves congenially
to farm life. However, one growing season (say from April

FIVE ACRES

to Oclobe r inclusive) is not a fa*r test The winter i« the
trying time — December to March — when, mcccnt from tee-
and milk, there is usually no income ard «Jie~ the rigors o<
cold weather must be met with fortitude

To « um up it? advantages* Renting is chb'Iy vahnHe
for the opportunities It afrords to cam o\p*'rio*ncc Wore
making a permanent investment. I mil the Kcmntr bv
p~.'S( d hi* self-imposed novitiate he will be v.be mi tn n
didrc *n ownership or to spend his probih 1 } bird »atn r d
monc} in badding-. permanent crops or improved' at- f<*'
the fo’h.vinc outstanding reason*

1 JJcca-*?** of some feature, attractive or cw-plcu »•’* r.t
the t«r>e ot preiimmrv visits decision to iuiv m»v hut
been too hast}. the result being that the property is p'rinpv
found to he less well adapted to the d<vrcd p «l v> r '
other prontrtV in the near neighborhood

2 Tiinv gi> Laving a farm i? eaniv and often too quiellv
done. e ellirc it i= usually slow. difficult end often dm,'’ ,-t a
lo««. even when tne property ha« been improvui and thu"
imde more vaU "He by improve ments in the budding* n'’*'
orchard*, vimjards, be my p-.tcht*. and perwinn} crop-
such a* n« n aragus and .dfaffa.

From the above it i» evident th->t the p-o'p'ctivv
shoidrj never s ; m a contract or agrc'*”fnt o' Vine to
bu>. v'acc an option rent vJth npbon n* huyinr
I. he hr? bvi d -inter*. -ted rdvieea- 1 1 tb«* valae ri '! * tj**
abi’lty 01 the i m 1 for -peciiu tv r <>* « *"'* J
!n«s - «r ' 1 th*'v cv« rv legr*' it* *n i* thorn " n.y i n..*r •e*’ • • ■

cr/ipb d’.ilh p<nirtltrl> *•? t)

* 1 1 -.i/rrt-t'd advice” i< rcr'-r, l’y -» 1 1 tr bj r * ’* ,
f.rf> tom i wtvu ***■;’

ard i > wfi a ll” • -re rr« try C ' ’ ^

tv t '\ s tb" r.i—y r ?> d<; » ’< p j>‘tt -*

hr!, -i r th ‘ r> .t.W or tor, wvr. 1 h- t - r. .*
r * -a . V. «' h, < li-sir ‘ !«>f •> i" »*' f “ '

r, r r *“jv». *r i -iJ v.at« r r "pi/- , ,

i** - 1 ' « .’*? f- r - - * ■ . t,.

r^*t *%vn | v. u . r .;. % ♦

t r._ " -M *' *1 ft'*- C'" V" ' J 1

49

RENTING VS. BUYING

which, when pointed out, they recognized as well founded
in every case. Some reasons that I recall and that may be
of service to my readers are the following; Inaccessibility,
inadequate water supply, land unsuited to the purposes of
the client, isolation (not a house in sight), impracticability
of haulin g spraying apparatus up a steep grade in an or-
chard already planted (the client and his wife had admired
the view of the hills and the distant Hudson River 1), too
large a proportion of untillable (swampy or stony) land
to tillable, and too great cost to remove brush and stumps
from neglected land. After receiving several adverse reports,
one client decided not to risk his money in farming!

I can recall only one case where everything was favorable
— good buildings, modern conveniences, excellent orchards
on favorable soil, both well managed and bearing profitable
crops, shipping facilities first class, good neighbors — every-
thing' Why, then, did the former owner wish to sell? I
asked him after making my inspection. Family tragedy The
buyer got a bargain and has made good

Among the most important items which a prospective
farm purchaser should see to are dear title, deed, survey of
the property, mortgage (if any) and its conditions, transfer
of insurance and premiums paid by the seller to date of
sale, and taxes. (Chapter 12.)

An instance in my own experience illustrates the im-
portance of making a thorough search of title records. A
farm that I bought some years ago had been owned by
father and son since about 1850. For this reason I accepted
a warranty deed. But when I wanted to sell it the prospec-
tive purchaser found that there was no record of the pay-
ment of a $500. mortgage recorded in the 1840’s — before
even the father of the man who sold to me was bom* So the
sale was hdd up until the legal requirements had been met;
namely, 30 days’ advertising in the county papers to dis-
cover if possible the heirs of the former mortgagee None
appearing, the court assumed that none were still living, that
in all probability the mortgage had been “satisfied,” and
that, as in “the old days” was often the case, the papers
' .had been destroyed without record. Though the man f rom
' whom I bought the farm had never heard of the mortagee

so

FIVE ACRES

or the mortgage he paid the court and advertising costs be-
cause of the warranty deed, his agreement being to give me
dear title to the property.

But that is not the best way to handle a property trans-
fer! Every buyer of real estate should insist upon an “un-
douded” title, proved by a thorough search of the county
records

Having found a property which seems desirable and
which the counselor or consultant reports upon favorably it
is advisable to visit the cashier of the local bank to discuss
plans, ask advice as to further procedure and the recom-
mendation of a good attorney to search title and draw up
the necessary papers (Chapter 13)

Three courses are open* 1, out-and-out buying, 2, buying
a smaller place than actually needed and renting supplemen-
tal land, 3, renting, either for cash or on shares Which one
is best for you cannot be offhandedly decided by anyone,
but suggestions as to the use of your capital and the desir-
able size of a farm should be helpful in any case, for avail-
able capital is generally the deciding factor

If your funds are limited and if you must derive your
whole income from the land it would almost surely be safer
to start as a renter However, if you know that any specific
farm is just what you want and where you wish to five and
if you are not wholly dependent for a livelihood upon what
the farm will produce the first few years it may be advisable
to buy, even though your capital is small.

Before you decide on the second plan suggested make
sure that land suited to your purposes and located near-ny
can be rented on reasonable terms When such can jtehad
you may be able to utilize your small capital to better ad-
vantage and to operate a larger area than under the first
plan and may enjoy all the satisfactions of owning y
home place which you may improve as your means and time

^Generally a farm is rented more as a , bu &^ JSfS
than as a home, hence special attention should be ipven to
importance of good soil, sureness of market, and sweasre
lated to efficiency of operation You must also
that when renting a farm the income must be enough to pay

RENTING VS. BUYING SI

the landlord a return on his investment as well as your own in-
come for your labor and the capital you have invested in
equipment, livestock, etc Hence the farm must have the
basis of good income so as to make a profitable return to
both parties concerned.

Farm management investigations show that tenant profits
are usually in direct proportion to the size of the business.
The tenant generally supplies the animals and equip ment S o
a good sized business allows him to use his capital effi-
ciently

Buying a small area and increasing the size of the busi-

52

FIVE ACRES

ness by renting adjoining land permits operating a good
sized business with limited capital and having greater se-
curity than if you start with no property of your own but
rent the whole area. As the plan might lead to your buying
the adjacent land, you should study the whole problem m
advance of making any move so as to avoid making any mis-
take

12

CAPITAL

The small amount of capital required to begin farming operations,
creates great misconception of what is necessary for commercial
gardening, for, judging from the small number of acres wanted for
commencing a garden, many suppose that a few hundred dollars is all
sufficient for a market gardener For want of information on this sub-
ject, hundreds have failed, after years of toil and privation

Peter Henderson,

In Gardening for Profit

P erhaps no question is so difficult to answer satisfactorily
as: How much capital should I have to start my htue
farm? Instead of attempting to set a figure (which probably
would not apply in one case out of scores) suppose we co -
sider a few specific crops and items that have more or less
direct bearing on the general subject of capital .

In apple orcharding a paying crop can rareiy be experted
under seven years, more often it is 10 to 15 X

varieties bear satisfactorily only “ alternate
rarely yield more than 15 crops in 37 to 40 or 45 years : fr
planting men such yields do occur **««*«* g
probably also have heavy crops so prices may be toojow
to make much profit With pears and most nuts
reach bearing are about the same. fourth

Peaches generally begin to be P rofi ^f “L k spe cial
or fifth year Some commercial growers; who take pe
care keep their trees in profitable production for ' £«* ttan
20 years, but the majority count on onl y 10 ual yjd
the peach would naturally bear every year, “JJ ^
cannot be counted upon because cold winters and spurns

53

CAPITAL

frosts often destroy the buds, flowers or newly formed
fruits; so if a crop is gathered oftener than twice in three
years it is “just so much velvet.”

Cherries and plums, which rarely become profitable be-
fore five years, are more regular annual bearers than apples
and pears and are naturally longer lived than peaches — 15
to 20 y ear s for well managed sour cherries and plums and <
30 or more for sweet cherries The mam objections to them
are the cost of picking and their proneness to brown rot of
the fruit and foliage.

Oranges, lemons and grape-fruit require five years to bear
profitable crops but, unless injured by frost, they usually
bear well annually and for many years

Currants and gooseberries begin to yield, usually, during
the fourth or fifth year. As they are perfectly hardy they
should bear well annually, provided they are properly
nwmagpH, and continue for 10 to 12 or 15 years

Raspberries, blackberries and dewberries generally start
to pay during the third year and bear annually for six to
ten years or more

Strawberries, when 14 or 15 months old bear their most
profitable crop When a second crop is borne by the same
bed it is not only lighter and inferior to the first but, because
of necessary hand weeding, it costs relatively more to pro-
duce and often brings lower prices

Among vegetables, asparagus cannot be expected to yidd
a paying crop until the third or fourth year, but when well
fertilized it should yield annually for at least 10 The bed
at my boyhood home yidded abundantly for more than 40
years to my certain knowledge, but it was fed lavishly.
Other perennial vegetables should yidd well the second or
third season but they are much shorter lived
Because of the times necessary to bring these plants into
bearing the grower must be patient, sanguine and assiduous
in his attention They indicate also that he must have dther
ample reserve capital, have ways of hiring it during these
periods of development or must pay the necessary yearly ex-
• penses by income from the place itsdf. Hence the reason
i, . for growing annual vegetable crops between the trees,
,£**' bushes and vines until these woody plants need all the space.

54

FIVE ACRES

Parenthetically it may be said that many a man, by grow-
ing vegetables and strawberries has developed his orchard,
vineyard or bush berry patch through these periods with a
balanced account and even a small profit before the fruit
crops began to pay, but, conversely, probably far more have
had a defiat, m fact, many have failed and lost their money,
their property and, what is worse still, their reliance on
themselves It takes cash, confidence, courage, cultivation
and patience to develop a fruit plantation of any kind So
the small farmer with limited means may prudently hesi-
tate to go in for tree fruit growing, except on the basis of
home supply or at most for a strictly local sale of bis
products He will more likely succeed if his money crops
are small fruits and vegetables and his other sources of in-
come are dressed poultry, eggs, honey and perhaps pork and

TT1IIK

From all this it is evident that the amount of capital
necessary to equip a place for crop production of any kind
varies widely. The most important factor to reckon with
when estimating is the men hi inself He must consider his
experience, his ability, his teachableness, his capacity to
work himself and to direct others, and so on Other im-
portant factors are locality, cost of land, character and
adaptability of soil, size of place, use of greenhouses, hot-
beds and coldframes, crops to be grown, ways of marketing,
equipment necessary, labor to be hired or supplied by the
family, style of living to be maintained, etc

In the growing of annual vegetables which naturally re-
quires smaller capital per acre than fruits and perennial vege-
tables, the estimates of experienced men vary from ?Z5 to
$500. an acre' The first is obviously too low for the ma-
jority of crops; the second too high except where consider-
able glass is employed Small places require proportiomtdy
far more capital per acre than do large ones However, the
higher of these figures need not frighten even the man ot
small means and limited experience— provided that he wd
make haste slowly Of course, the more limited the
and the less the experience the smaller the area ,

ot should be handled, even when the man owns more land
tfian he attempts to work One is far more likely to

!

CAPITAL

55

when 50, 25 or even a smaller percent of the available area
is thoroughly well worked than when the seed, fertilizer
cultivation and especially the labor are spread out so thin
that the crops get inadequate food and attention and weeds
gain and maintain supremacy over them The experience
gained in producing a small crop of high quality that com-
mands a good price is sure to foster one’s confidence and
enthusiasm; whereas to fail because of too large-scale oper-
ation is sure to quash both

In grain, hay and other field crop fanning the rent or in-
terest on the land cost may be 50% of the total expense of
growing and harvesting, but in the production of inter-tilled
crops such as vegetables the land rent or interest may be
only 10%, that is, the total cost of bringing an inter-tilled
crop from seedage to sale may be five to ten times as great,
depending largely upon the amount of tillage, fertilizing,
spraying and handling necessary

Properly to work five acres of closely planted vegetables
for a market within three to five miles and where green-
houses, hotbeds and coldframes are used (as they should
be) not less than a man to the acre can be kept busy
throughout the year with more or less extra hands, depend-
ing upon the class of crop during the harvesting periods To
attempt to get along with fewer is almost sure to invite dis-
aster

From all this it is evident that when the available ca pita l
is limited to say $1,500 or less with which to pay rent or
interest on land cost, buy equipment, fertilizers, manures,
seed, labor and other essential items, it is far safer to plan t
only two or three acres in inter-tilled crops than to sow the
whole area to them The balance of the land need by no
means be left idle: it may be sown to green manures as an
investment in its own improvement and, later, the profit of
the owner Every square foot should be made to give a good
account of itself. 6

In view of all this it is important to consider what returns
to expect from the various crops The usual way is to calcu-
late on the acre basis; but this is objectionable because it
gives a false impression. A better way is the labor-hour
basis. For instance, an apple orchard may show a gross re-

56

FIVE ACRES

turn of $100. an acre and a profit of $50 Looks good, eh? A
crop of oats may bring in $25 gross an acre and a profit of
$7. “Not so good,” you say! Hay, considered a “cheap
crop,” may yield only $15 gross and $6. profit an acre
‘Humph! I'll have none of that!” you may ejaculate But
let’s look at the labor-hour calculation The apples show a
labor-hour profit of perhaps 25f*, the oats 30$) and the hay
60$)! Thus the labor-hour method shows which crops pay
best, which poorest and which are not paying, even when
the acre-basis seems to show a profit! All this has a bearing
upon the capital necessary to operate a place, the costs,
yields, profits and other items necessary for production be-
ing estimated beforehand.

Vegetables and day-old chicks may pay well for them-
selves during the first season and strawberries the second
but on a newly started place they cannot be expected to
carry the whole load. So if the first year's balance sheet
shows that expenses have been met by production income
the owner may congratulate himself as a taxi exception to
the general ride In such cases the second and subsequent
years are likely to be more encouraging, especially when
some of the plantings are of bush and cane berries, grapes
and asparagus.

13

FARM FINANCE

It is a fundamental error to suppose that fa rming is neither a busi-
ness nor a profession It is a business which requires the highest
business talent, it is a profession which requires the best technical skill
No other profession requires such a variety of learning, such an
insight into Nature, such skill of a technical kind in order to be success-
ful, as tb« profession of farming

Harvey W Whey,

In The Lure of the Loud

C redit is a powerful agency for good for whoever knows
how to use it, dangerous for those who do not Like
land, capital is a factor which requires use — investment
Hence its extensive employment in farming has developed

57

FARM FINANCE

because machinery demands it Though in the past little
money was needed to start fanning, today the cost of good
land and machinery require far greater sums
Capital, as money, originates in only one way — consump-
tion of less than produced. You may spend a dollar for
amusement or for a tool. In the first case you may satisfy
your desires — “get the worth of your money;” in the second
you become an investor, a captialist, to the extent that you
use the tool to create more dollars If you do not have a
dollar your only chance to become such an investor or capi-
talist is to borrow the tool or the money with which to buy
it No matter which of these plans you adopt the lender of
either must place confidence in you — give you credit.

Capital for farm equipment may be secured in only two
ways, by consuming less than one produces so as to ac-
cumulate it, or borrowing it The disadvantage of the former
is that one is handicapped until the necessary equipment is
accumulated, the advantage of the latter is that this delay
can be eliminated and the tools used at once to pay for
themselves This is the only advantage credit has in any
business. For those who know how to use it, it is a powerful
aid.

However, credit is not to be invoked without due calcula-
tion. Machines wear out, seasons are unfavorable, prices
fall, unforeseen events occur, but payment time is inexorable
It comes with fatal certainty. Debts, unless paid, may bank-
rupt the borrower just as surely.

Borrowing money for production is no more dishonorable
than borrowing tools for the same purpose. What has stig-
matized it as such in the past is borrowing to pay the cost of
living, still more of “living high.” To borrow for production
shows business enterprise as honorable in its degree as bor-
rowing to build a railway, found a factory, or buy goods to
stock a department store.

In the past usury or interest was condemned because the
money borrowed was too often used for non-productive pur-
poses. Modem thinkers and teachers favor interest obliga-
tions when the borrowing is for production; the only in-
sistence is that the legal rate be fixed by the state Except
where the rate is exorbitant interest gives little trouble; it is

58

FIVE ACRES

principal that does When a man borrows $100 at 6% for a
year, the debt to pay when due is $106., when he can bor-
row from another source at Sfo the debt is $105 , a differ-
ence of $1 This is not merely $1 , but just that much capital
to be either saved for later use or ignored and wasted Good
business saves just such and even smaller items However,
the point here is not the difference of $1 but the $100
original capital which is identical in both cases
The only safe way to use the borrowed money is to es-
tablish means of payment beforehand For instance, if the
$100 at 6% is invested in fertilizer which increases crop
yields of $125 , not only the interest but the principal could
be paid out of earnings and the difference ($19 ) credited
as so much increased capital But should the returns on the
borrowed money be only $75 the question will arise as to
how to pay the principal, to say nothing of the interest
Hence the investment of the $100. so as to return $125 in-
stead of $75. is more important than to be able to borrow
money at a lower interest rate or without any interest at
all! No unproductive enterprise is a safe one on which to

borrow. , , , . ,

This discussion leads up to the fundamental rules to be
observed when borrowing on credit Rule Number 1 insists
that before seeking farm credit the borrower must be sure
that the project for which the money is sought wtu produce
more money than wtU be needed to pay both principal a
interest, for except in rare instances, it is bad policy to Dor-
row for anything that will not pay for itself .

Should money be borrowed for, say, fertilizer xxaaer
promise to pay before the crops can be harvested and sold,
difficulty may arise to pay it In such cases three eventsmay
occur to satisfy the debt. 1, Money may come i \ rom some
other source, 2, the loan or the note may be extended, 3, me
creditor may sell out the borrower. The first vi ,

good business precept that each part of a busmes
pay its own expenses and a profit, the second asks
of the creditor and thus more or Ieffi disrupts buanessar
rangements, the third almost invariably results in a more ,

or less heavy loss for the borrower ,

Rule 2. Have the repayment date of principal fall u>

FARM FINANCE 59

most convenient to the borrower; i e , when the borrower is
most likely to have cash to meet the obligation; as, for
instance, when a crop will be marketed.

Closely associated with this rule is Rule 3, duration of
the loan, how long it is to run Should the loan be for a
year’s fertilizer it should not run for longer, for should the
first crop not pay for it money must come from some other
source, otherwise the borrower will never be able to pay for

Fig 10 Upward-flow filter for astern Dimensions
40" x48"x62" A, Sump drainage handle B, Valve sleeve
C, Met D, Wire screen E, Sand F, Charcoal G, Coarse
gravel H, Grate with wire cover J, Waste dram K, Sump
-drain

it, thus violating Rule 1. The period should not be short®
than the growing season of the crop because this would vio-
late Rule 2

Should a machine that will last, say, 10 years be bought
on borrowed money each crop upon which it is to be used
should pay not only the annual interest charge but a part of
the principal— in this case 10%. Small loans of this type
should give no trouble and should not require special ar-
rangements for repayment, but large loans, for instance to
buy land, build barns or make costly improvements may
entail financial stress, so any method whereby this may be
reheved should be considered One of the best is the long

60

FIVE ACRES

time loan — but not so long as to outlive the improvement!

Should an improvement be estimated to last 10 years it
is good judgment to repay the loan in fewer years, for if the
improvement will not last that long it will never pay for it-
self Conversely, seldom can an improvement pay for itsdf
in 1 or 2 years, so unless the borrower have other means he
would invite strain to agree to too early payment The
period a debt ts to run should be closely related to the pro-
ductive life oj the improvement for which money is bor-
rowed. Thus the borrower may avoid the necessity of re-
newing the loan, also subjection to an unscrupulous lender
who mig ht refuse to renew a short-time loan, but foreclose
Rule 4. In long time loans provision should be made to
reduce the principal tn installments This may be done in
either of two ways 1. The note may state that the borrower
may (optionally) repay part of the principal on any interest
date In such cases the amount of interest is also reduced
with each payment until the whole debt is canceled 2 The
note may provide for a stated rate of amortization by an-
nual or semi-annual fixed payments, each of which includes
interest to its date of payment and also a part of the princi-
pal until all is paid Every borrower of a long-time loan
should insist on one or other of these plans Amortization
tables for loans of various durations and rates of interes
are available at banks and other financial institutions
Though Rule S is obvious, namely, that as low as posable
an interest rate should be secured, its application is not -
ways evident Interest rates depend upon the law of supp y
and demand When the number of lenders is large and loan-
able money is abundant m a community the rate will be low
because borrowers can insist upon lowered
verse conditions the loaners can raise the rates H
advisability of increasing the number of loaners or we
loanable capital, not by denouncing either, but by
ing loaners to the neighborhood As numbers
capital increase borrowers may get more favorable _ *

Farmers must disabuse their minds of the idea .
is the best security It is not! The character and
ability of the borrower in farming, just as m every
business exceed all else. Such men meet their obligations

FARM FINANCE

61

promptly and without legal proceedings, so credit condi-
tions in the community improve as the numbers of such men
increase because the right kind of lenders flock to such com-
munities and the “sharks” decamp. The right kind dislike
to foreclose mortgages or resort to legal technique They
merely want their principal and interest according to agree-
ment However, one farmer working alone can rarely do
much to attract lenders, but cooperation can Even so small
a group as half a dozen men of sterling integrity, each with
confidence in and respect for the other, may work out the
problem of local farm credit to the advantage of the whole
community

Suppose we review some ways the business farmer and
the local bank may serve each other Probably “working
capital” is the greatest need of the greatest number of
farmers The fact of its usual under-supply, particularly at
the start, is the most restricting of all factors to success.
Even when it is available it is often badly managed
Properly handled, money makes money; improperly, it
loses

To determine ways to make money in farming the annual
budget and the annual inventory are of prime importance
When the farmer starts business and at the beginning of
each of his business years (which may be calendar or his
own fiscal year, say March 1) he makes his inventory, then
estimates his probable gross expenses and income for each
month and for each crop or department so as to determine
in advance at what time he is likely to be pinched for
money, when he will have surplus, when he must borrow and
when he can repay. Knowledge of business methods toarhoc
him that hiring money is the same as hiring labor. So he
shows both his budget and his inventory to the rachi<» r of
his local bank and arranges for loans perhaps months before
he will actually need to borrow.

In seeking such working capital he is not asking, but con-
ferring a favor because the banks make money work for
them by earning interest and discount on their loans By
’ waning money on business enterprises, especially the pro-
duction business of farming, the bank enables its borrowers
to pay their petty bills such as labor and repairs and thus

62 FIVE ACRES

keep their own and the community affairs running smoothly
Still further, as such moneys when borrowed on notes rarely
cost as much as 7% at discount rates, the user may make
money by paying cash for his bills at 2% discount instead
of net at 30 days. This means a 24 % gain on the money so
spent Upon deducting the cost of the note (7% or less)
from the 24% earned on the discounted bills the remainder
is 17% or perhaps 18% This not only means that amount
profit on the borrowed money so used but the enhancement
of the farmer's reputation for prompt payment— always an
asset

But the cashier of the bank is able and glad to serve the
farmer in many other important ways He can replace the
attorney m countless cases — and at no cost In fact so far
as business transactions are concerned he is far better able
to advise wisely in financial affairs than are most attomeysl
Be has such business at his tongue tip all the time Not only
so but he serves his bank when he advises his patrons m
their business matters All he requires is full frankness —
knowledge of all conditions that may bear directly or indi-
rectly upon each specific case

Some of the ways in which he may serve and benefit the
fanner are m selling or buying in distant markets by bills
of lading and sight drafts, advising as to investments of all
kinds, arranging partnership agreements, buying or selling
property, joint ownership in specific equipment or breeding
stock and countless other business projects

Finally, the bank deposit vault is the safest place m
which to store valuable papers such as promissory notes,
deeds, mortgages, insurance policies, contracts, stocks,
bonds, and inventories of all buildings on the farm property,
these last each brought up to date annually Always these
papers should be kept in a safety deposit box in a fireproo
bank Though the value of negotiable paper is evident ana
though copies of deeds, mortgages and some other papers
may be made, the importance of keeping other lrreplacea
documents in the bank deposit box cannot be over-statea,
for insurance policies and inventories are convincing in
of fire Never should they be kept where they may he de-
stroyed, stolen, misplaced or lost.

FARM ACCOUNTS

63

14

FARM ACCOUNTS

Farming is largely commercial, not self-sufficing The fanner is de-
pendent upon the sale of commodities to pay his debts and his taxes
and buy many necessities . It is true that the fanner generally
has food But he also has difficulty m meeting debts and taxes
Often the spectre of possible loss of his farm through foreclosure hangs
over bun He sees himself unable to provide the reasonable comforts
he would like his family to have

Dowell and Jesness,

In The Farmer and the Export Trade.

E very farmer seeks to make his farm pay, to gain more
than a mere living, to enjoy the comforts of life and to
provide for old age To do all this demands careful planning
months and often years in advance of marketing At the
opening of each season the farmer who plans a production
program may feel that he has planned well but at the dose
of the year may find that he has erred, or that growing con-
ditions were unfavorable. High prices at planting and
breeding time usually prove a poor guide when planning the
operations for the following season
Crops to grow, area to plant, live stock and how much to
keep are problems which demand knowledge of market re-
quirements and conditions, when the produce is to be sold,
die advantages and disadvantages of various competing
regions, knowledge of price trends and the potential pro-
duction of the individual farm. Most farm products are sup-
plied by many farmers working independently and compet-
ing with one another in the market Usually the keenest
competition does not come from producers in other districts
but from the neighbors.

Each farmer, therefore, should know what these competi-
tors are planning to do He should learn to utilize the
fatalities created by agricultural experiment stations and the
Department of Agriculture as to the combination of the
various crop and livestock enterprises and econ omic condi-
tions. These unbiased agencies strive to give true informa-

64 FIVE ACRES

tion concerning the leading farm enterprises to enable
farmers to plan their work intelligently with respect to
market demands, changing economic conditions and prob-
able price trends at the time when sales are planned to be
made. Information is available through diverse publications
and state, county and community channels The county
agricultural agent will also supply information
More important still, eveiy farmer should know the truth
about his own farm business, be able to plan production
programs and adjust his program to meet changing eco-
nomic conditions He who discovers bis less economical and

productive methods and either corrects or discards them
usually makes his farm pay better than before Keeping
records is the most effective way by which to determine the
truth about himself and his business, his less economical
and less productive methods, practises, crops and live stock
Of primary importance in these respects is an annual
farm inventory, for the following reasons

I. It shows the net worth or total value of all property
above liabilities and tells whether or not the enterprise is
being run at a profit or a loss, and how much 2 It shows
how the total investment is apportioned among the diverse
branches of the business 3 As cash on hand, taken alone, is
not a safe guide as to earnings, an inventory prevents draw-
ing false conclusions as to prosperity at the dose of the
year Often a comparatively small amount of cash dis-
courages a fanner who has done well but whose earnings
are tied up in some kind of property Conversely, a arg
amount of cash on hand may have come from a decrease m
inventory of other property. 4 An inventory kept up to date
enhances credit relations with banks and other loanmgcon-
cems when money must be borrowed to carry on e
ness 5 Should adjustment be necessary after a are, “ ”
highly valuable 6 . It is fundamental to the keeping of any

“SS’S^'reveal the less product.™, tas ecoooedg l

methods and practises and where income may **

but they are of little or no value unless analyzed

suits studied Among important items

following facts: 1 Net earnings the fanner pays

FARM ACCOUNTS

65

for his labor and management 2. Gross income or total
amount received on sales of crops, live stock and live stock
products and increases in inventories each year 3 Volume
and increase m business as a whole and from each depart-
ment-live stock and individual crops. 4. Total operating ex-
penses. 5. Cost per $100. of income from each department
as a check upon expense control 6 Total live stock 7.
Productive animal units per area or the proportion of stock-
ing to the land stocked. 8, Acres pastured per animal unit

Gravel .

-faftrafrd
. SK*.|

■ — * — — i-- st — -h

■ !AblM)91Spm|SMl

DcftrMcitkdhrts*

ClsItmHoSl Htfcr-TighP

With Omni Mortar NeioyaPorfj
ShcryS and To 1 port Parttan dCwBiait
tortr Portion yCishrn OnDo&wltWtft
aocry Won« Uid DRV Or With Hard Burned Brick.

IWloiHiaii Ont Inch GoMmjid Iron Pipe MAIApiShtU' 1
B« Reamed. HOTE HcrerM Paint Rid Or Wlnte lead InAPtUina
Put IfCnThe Pipe THreadi Only

Be Bure To Uyllit Pim In APir/telly Lme.Red Belm'Ihe^oxHfne.

Fig 11 Gravity system of water supply (See also Fig 12 )

or the economy of pasturage 9. Receipts from stock depart-
ments 10 Receipts per unit whether animal or crop, as a
check upon the quality of product. Low returns per unit
indicate that quality is below par.

H. Records of how well horse, tractor and man labor are
being used. 12. Productive labor, or the average number
of hours — horse, tractor and man — necessary to manqw
each crop and class of live stock annually. 13. Total number
of available days’ labor annually. 14. Use of man labor
compared with available days’ labor to care for each crop
and class of live stock. 15 Number of men needed annually
to run the farm 16 Crop-acres per man or number of acres
grown per man 17. Productive animal units per man. or
number of head per man. 18. Crop-acres per horse 19. Days

66

FIVE ACRES

of productive horse-labor to care for each crop and depart-
ment of live stock. 20. Days of work, per horse or tractor
each year 21 After the record has been analyzed the less
economical and less productive methods and practises may
be studied, amended, or replaced by better ones, and what
can and can not be done to improve conditions may then be
considered.

Every farmer should have his account book, take inven-
tories, keep records of receipts and expenses as suggested
and thus increase his income

IS

WATER SUPPLY

For the Lori thy God bnngeth thee into a good land, a land of brooks
of water, of fountains and depths that spring out of valleys and hills,
a land of wheat, and barley, and vines, and fig trees, and pome-
granates, a land of oil olive, and honey, a land wherein thou shalt
eat bread without scarceness, thou shalt not lack any thing in it

Deuteronomy, Vill, 7-9

S o far as family water supply is concerned I may fairly
claim to have graduated' At various times I have lived
in houses where the primitive rain barrel furnished family
needs and reared mosquitoes, where the shallow cistern
provoked profanity every winter because holes had to
chopped in the ice and from which the water had
lifted by a “sweep,” “the old oaken bucket, or hmtaj,
hand over hand, by rope and pail, a chain-pump ,
a deep, unprotected astern was built without P ro , ,
drainage and had to be cleaned of noisome slu g >
toads, mice and other gruesome ingredients
where there was a “filter astern” which couldnotbe
deaned(l) because of inaccessibility, where an attic wn
filled direct from the roof collected leaves, soot, *rtand^ rd
droppings, and where, m several houses, the water badto he
pumped by hand either to a tank in the “ a

tank in the cellar. Such experiences prompt me to mciua

WATER SUPPLY 67

chapter od family water supply and to urge the installation of
modern apparatus in every farm home.*

Rain water is so superior to most well and spring water
and is such a money-saver that every farm home should
have a supply, if for no other purpose that for the family
washing It requires no “softener,” uses less soap and is
pleasanter to work with than even the best water that has
come in contact with the ground. Objections to the latter in-
clude the brownish or whitish scale that forms in kettles

Fig 12 Enlarged view of “two-gate valves" shown in Figure 11.

because of its content of lime, magnesia and iron. This scale
is a poor conductor of heat thus making necessary the use of
excessive fuel It also dogs “waterbacks” in kitchen stoves
and “heating coils” in furnaces, often causes leaks and some-
times explosions

Lime and magnesia form “curd” or “sludge” with soap
and washing powders and spot or stain dothes being washed,
and water that contains iron turns brown upon standing,
stains pails and makes dothes yellow or stained when laun-
dered Bleaching such stains shortens the life of the doth.

To obtain an adequate supply of rain water for household
use provision must be made to collect it, to diminate con-
taminating materials by screening and filtering, to provide
storage and to make the water readily usable The roofs of
buildings are the most common sources of supply, but they
are subject to various types of contamination and sinpo
water is a good solvent it is quickly polluted Hence, in col-
lecting a rain-water supply the roof must be thoroughly
cleaned by ram before any water is allowed to collect inthe
astern Also the. down-spouts always should be discon-
nected from the cistern by cut-off valves except when water

anrf p U TO >f T W £ at foUol J? concerning asterns was published by A M Buswdl
MdE W Lehman m Circular 393 of the Illinois Experiment Station

68

FIVE ACRES

is to be stored. At regular intervals they should be inspected
to make sure they are uncontammated

The filter cistern is used chiefly to remove foreign matter
carried in suspension in the rain water Coarse material such
as leaves is first removed by a screen before the water
reaches the filter proper The filter should have surface area
enough for sedimentation before filtration, be so con-
structed that sediment and the filtering material may be
easily removed

Though the commonest type is the downward flow or
gravity style a far better type is the upward-flow style with
drains shown in Figure 10. This is a concrete box filled with
alternate layers of coarse gravel, charcoal and sand from
which a dram discharges the water when not flowing into the
cistern and which drains the filter when not m use A screen
removes all coarse material and a hose or a few pads oi
water will cleanse the inlet side without disturbing the cis-
tern supply The easily removable water-tight top is for re-
moval and renewal of file filtering material.

Storage may be either above or below ground. Where there
is little danger of freezing the former is sa ^ sf , ac ^’ ry '
where the roof is high the tank may be placed high enough
to rive pressure without pumping Such tanks may pe
wood, galvanized iron or sheet lead lined and placed
or dose to the house whose roof collects the water

The commonest storage lor raw water is
underground astern The walls must be made water-ti^tto
prevent leakage and to avoid the entrance of s^page water

Never should it be located near trees because fte rootenugt

crack the walls Trouble of this kind is most likely to occur

with plaster-on-earth masonry ^factory

Cylindrical and rectangular cisterns are boj satisfa ^
By providing a pipe at the lowest point o there

practically all the sediment may be siphoned ou .^ r .

is a drain to a lower level (Fig 9) or pumped out other

"astern sizes to serve all W^cal housed pujp^
depend on three factors. 1 , - Requirements < o
2, amount and frequency of rains, 3, area of house

water. The quantity of water depends on the Kina o

69

WATER SUPPLY

equipment and the number of persons in the family When
water is pumped by hand less is used than when a gasolene
or an electric pump does the work Five gallons daily per
person is a fair estimate where ample hard water under
pressure is also available for other purposes Far more
should be provided where there is enough roof area to col-
lect it

Study of local annual rainfall will help in calculating the
size of a cistern when the roof area is adequate At least
33% of the rainfall should be deducted for leakage, evapora-
tion and to wash the roof Enough storage capacity should
be provided to store water that falls during the rainy period
to meet needs during the dry time, better still to have suf-
ficient storage for six months

Water in a new or a repaired cistern is likely to be hard
because of dissolved lime from the plaster or the cement
Thorough curing and setting of the plaster will reduce this
difficulty Curing may be hastened by sponging, spraying or
washing the surface of the new plaster or cement with a
strong solution of baking soda before allowing the cistern
to fill with water, or by filling it with well water and allowing
it to stand a few days before emptying it, repeating the
treatment if necessary

_ Where this condition has not been anticipated and the
cistern has been allowed to fill with rain water, the q uali ty
of the water may be improved by dissolving one to two pounds
of baking soda in a gallon of water, then thoroughly mi-ring it
with the cistern water. It is not advisable to drink water
treated in this way because it is highly alkaline, but it may
be used for washing

Even with a cistern carefully constructed and well cared
for, it is not always possible to keep the water free from un-
desirable substances Soot from coal does not wash easily
from roofs so even though the first part of each rain is
drained away, the water collected in late fall and early spring
is likely to be dark; it gets very dark during winter This
color may be removed by adding carefully prepared solutions
of alum and soda to the water to form a sludge which when
rt settles wffl carry the color with it. Wrong proportions
WU1 give poor results Make two solutions as follows

70

FIVE ACRES

1. Dissolve % pound of baking soda in 1 gallon of vrater.
2. Dissolve 1 pound of alum (potassium al uminum sulphate
crystals) in % gallon of water. (“Filter alum" — aluminum
sulphate — is cheaper than alum and may be used if avail-
able. Use Yt pound to Yz gallon of water. Do not use “burnt
alum.”)

Determine the amount of water in the cistern by mul-
tiplying the area by the actual depth of water (1 cubic foot
contains 7 Yz gallons). For each 30 gallons of water add
Yz pint of solution No. 1 and stir Next add 34 pint of solu-
tion No 2 for each 30 gallons and stir again Allow 24
hours for the precipitate to settle to the bottom, after which
the water above the sludge will be clear

The relatively small amount of sediment precipitated
will not cause inconvenience Mud and dirt that always ac-
cumulate in a cistern should be removed, together with the
precipitate, once each year when the supply of water is

lowest

In spite of precautions leaves, mice, toads or insects some-
times get into cisterns and produce bad odors The proper
thing then is to dean the cistern thoroughly In dry
years, when this waste of water may be serious the water
may be deodorized and made satisfactory for all uses racept
drinking, by treatment with chloride of lime which burns
up the odor Mix about a tablespoonful in a porcelain, glass
or crockery dish with two or three tablespoonfuls of wa ,
rub the lumps with the spoon, then add about a quart oi
water Stir thoroughly and pour the solution into the tans,
mixing it intimately with the dstem water by
a long board or a paddle If this treatment is not adequate^
use a second or a third dose if necessary This
is harmless unless used in excessive amounts. lv

A spring may often be the source of a watersuppV-
When higher than the point of use pipes pkcedbdcj
frost line may be laid so the water will A° w .^sFeome-
Though the system usually works well, trouble is
times met by 1 the gradual reduction and
of the flow Generally this is because aur has coU^tei^^
by little from bubbles in the water and lodged ws
regularity of the pipe The less the grade, the smaller

71

WATER SUPPLY

pipe and the slower the flow the greater the likelihood of
such trouble because the bubbles will not be carried down by
the current but gradually work back to a high spot
To avoid difficulty the pipe should not be smaller than
1" Stand pipes may be tapped in at high spots to allow the
air to escape The entrance to the pipe should be 6" or
more above the bottom of the spring well and be protected

g fl, WilerGouga Gloss Me.

/. C NoYatve Require i They Haw

S 1 ' tSl ® etn foanJ lmJ»»wM«Tol(«p

| Ti<M gLl&ter Supplyfipa

” #' ToHfl Plumbing fixtures.

£ JloJi&BromlSlve g/tfr
Pressure Gouge. E Jilndt
Hose Bibb Faucet.
tfefe. Tie Stop Sr Dram
Should Aftttey Be fi/aced
fibmre Tfie pressure 6ooyr
D. V/henTanhHusTo
Be Laid Horijentatty As
Below Water Hud Be
Pumped Into Lower End
See Tank

To Plumbing
Fixtures .

Zftel-

Fig 13 Erect pneumatic pressure water tank

by a screen to prevent anything but water getting in The
pipe itself should be laid as straight as possible, with neither
dips, rises, nor avoidable angles All joints should be well
leaded and screwed tight so as to cover all die threaded
parts

That this kind of system works well where conditions
are favorable I can fully attest because one place owned by
a cousin and another rented by my father when I was a boy
were supplied by springs considerably higher than the house.
The water was conveyed in “pump-lop” and in the latter case

72 FIVE ACRES

the pressure was great enough to throw a stream over the
house It had its source more than half a mile distant

The pressure or pneumatic water system is doubtless most
popular of all used in farm homes because it is efficient,
simple to install, easy to operate, reasonable in cost and
adaptable to a wide range of conditions The one I in-
stalled on my farm to supply both house and barn (ISO feet
away) was pumped by hand until an electric company sup-
plied current (Fig 13 )

As water is pumped into one of these closed tanks the air
is condensed to a fraction of its original volume, so its pres-
sure is increased When thus half filled with water the pressure
is about 14 pounds to the square inch above the pressure of
the open air and will so be indicated on the pressure gauge
attached to the tank. When the tank is two-thirds its capac-
ity full the gauge pressure will read about 28 pounds and at
three-fourths capacity about 42 pounds, the usual maxi-
mum pressure for ordinary service

Where conditions are favorable the hydraulic ram or
the hydraulic “engine" is usually the most satisfactory and
least costly apparatus to install and operate for pumping
water. (Fig 14.) The machine is a device by which the ^

momentum of a column of water Sowing in a pipe f®*®*
small part of itself to a higher level than its source > It ngr
be used wherever water in sufficient volume' jP^es
from its source to a lower level of several fee

♦ Much of what follows 8 condensed from Kentucky Experiment Station

WATER SUPPLY 73

are built to use impure water for operation but pure water
for delivery.

Water flows through the drive pipe to the ram and out
through an impetus valve It gains velocity until its momen-
tum doses the valve, whose sudden dosing forces the moving
column of water to open a valve in the bottom of an air

chamber, drive water in and compress the air until the
water column has spent its energy. Then the air-chamber
valve doses and the compressed air forces water through
the delivery pipe to the reservoir. When the air-chamber
valve doses the water column in the drive pipe rebounds
slightly, removes pressure from the impetus valve which
then opens and re-starts the cyde This repetition continues

tong a s. the drive pipe is full of water. In order to work
the following conditions must be met:

The fall from the supply to the ram must be at feas t V
and the minimum flow 1 gallon a minute; but the fall neces-
sary depends on the volume of water needed and the hp fefe
it is to be pumped

The fall may be measured with a carpenter’s or a sur-
veyor s level or with a garden hose used as a siphon from
the source to the point where the ram is to be located In
the last case the hose must be lifted at its lower end until

74

FIVE ACRES

the water no longer runs out but stands at the opening
which is pointed upward The distance from this point to
the ground is the height of the fall
The lift or height to which the water is to be raised should
not be more than 10 or 12 times that of the fall This
height is the vertical distance between the level of the ram
and the top of the reservoir
According to the ratio of the fall to the hft a ram dis-
charges approximately 4% to 15% of the water supplied to
it. The approximate quantify discharged a minute equals
the product of the fall in feet by the number of gallons a
minute supplied to the ram, divided by twice the hft
When writing manufacturers concerning the size of ram
needed, cost and method of installation, be sure to indude

the following information

1. Flow of spring, or number of gallons a minute the
spring supphes 2 Fall or vertical distance from the water
level m the supply basin to the location of the ram 3
Distance from the source of water to the ram location
4 Length of pipe needed to deliver the water from the ram
to the storage tank S Lift, or vertical height above the
level of the ram to the level of discharge at the reservoir
6 Maximum number of gallons of water needed daily to

meet all demands ,

Should a ram work imperfectly or stop any one of several
causes may be responsible If the flow is insufficient in the
drive pipe, dose the gate valve on that pipe at the ram unto
enough water has accumulated, then open it and start the
ram by pressing down the impetus valve, allowing toe water
to escape, then permitting the valve to rise again. After
several such repetitions the ram should operate automah
cally. By shortening the stroke of toe impetus valve jtte ram
may be made to use less water This may be done with a
simple adjustment Sand or twigs or kaves somehmes gej
into and dog the impetus valve Thorough 1

cleaning both valve seats is mdicated_ When the valves be-
come worn they must be replaced Usually toey
several to many years if the water is free from sand
Perhaps the commonest cause of stopping is msuffi
r to toe air-chamber. Pressure to this compartment makes

air

SEWAGE DISPOSAL 75

tbe water absorb air, so unless new supplies are taken in the
apparatus will stop. Rams generally have smiting valves to
take in air with each stroke but sometimes these become
clogged. They are easily cleaned with a small wire. With
each stroke they suck in a little air which rises in the air-
chamber and thus maintains pressure.

16

SEWAGE DISPOSAL

It is bow a well-established fact that all excreta contain myriad* of
seeds which m growing will destroy all animal and vegetable matter,
converting them into liquids and gases These seeds . which are
known by various names such as germs, microbes, bacteria, etc., war
upon each other relentlessly . If we give the friendly ones a
chance they will kill off the unfriendly or disease-producing kind.
Therefore, we should help our friends by giving them «u ri» surround-
ings that they can rapidly multiply and destroy not only sewage but
the disease-producing enemies

Dr. Ellis M Santee,

In Farm Sevxtgi

O n the first farm that I bought there were no “conven-
iences.” So as we had long been accustomed to city con-
ditions we installed a pressure water system, plumbing and
a septic tank Though neither my son nor I tad ever worked
with concrete or dynamite or seen a septic tank we dug the
pit, blasted out some boulders, built the tank and laid the
drains ourselves according to specifications in Dr. Santee’s

As the only place we could locate it was in the vegetable
garden we reinforced the cover with such quantities of scran
iron that heavy horses plowed across it in safety. Tbe in-
stallation is m its twentieth year and has always worked

haS £ ever J"* ded t0 be opened In fact, to quote
Dr. Santee, such a tank, properly built and not abused
^ould never need to be cleaned out during the lifetime of
.te talto. Wbk. a* cesspool (wMch flUslp JS u ii

76 FIVE ACRES

replaced or cleaned periodically) the first cost is the only
cost.

As the details of construction of this installation are no
longer dear in memory, as some of them might not be of
service to the reader and as improvements have been made
in methods since mine was built I therefore synopsize the
following paragraphs and reproduce the illustrations from
experiment station publications, mainly from New Hampshire
Extension Circular 98.

Where no municipal sewage system is available the septic
tank is generally the most satisfactory way to dispose of
household wastes Anyone who will give thought and at-
tention to the important details may build one The standard
type may be built as follows :

A plain , rectangular, tight box, preferably of concrete,
5' or if deep, 1% times as long as the breadth, receiving
only household sewage and liquid waste from the kitchen,
which enters by an inlet pipe submerged as shown m Figure
16, which has a slow and regular flow to the outlet pipe 2
lower than the inlet pipe The liquid (called the “effluent )
which flows from the tank is but little discolored and carries
no visible solid matter. The best method of its disposal is
through ordinary drain tile laid as subirrigation The cover,
which must be tight and at least a foot above the scum win
forms on top of the liquid in the tank, should be removable,
at least in part, so as to allow access to the inside when

Figure 16 shows the action of a septic tank. Sewage enters
from the house through a 4" glazed, tight Jointed sewer
pipe which should be as short as convenient , wrtfa a slope
of at least 2%” and not more than 10 ra 10 . It is > und
sirable to have the incoming stream enter the tank^lenfly
and thus disturb the contents The fitting used at theen
trance should be an elbow, a Tee or a Y-braiid£ as shown,
so its opening will always be submerged, and so fte nwvcm
stream will be deflected downward This Erection of flow
may be aided by plank baffle boards, as shown A simitor
pipe fitting, placed at the discharge end 2 gas

let pipe, should be vented as shown in order to allow th gas

to escape

77

SEWAGE DISPOSAL

As the sewage flows slowly through the tank the solid
matter settles to the bottom and leaves an almost clear
effluent which is disposed of by subirngation Bacterial ac-
tion within the tank converts most of the solid matter

Fig 16 Dimensions and forms for single chamber septic
tank

Though the effluent is generally clear, it must be disposed
of carefully or it may give offense or even cause disease if
it comes in contact with a water supply The best method of
disposal is by means of land tile laid as follows:

Tile not less than 3" in diameter is laid in a trench 18"
to 24" deep, with open joints, protected over the top with
tarred paper to prevent the entrance of soil or sand which
would tend to clog the pipe. The slope of the tile in the dis-
posal bed should not exceed %" to the foot. This requires

78

FIVE ACRES

careful laying to secure best results. A 1" z 4" grade board

? nven bottom of the ditch will prove
helpful in obtauung a uniform slope *

By using boards 12' long and setting the down stream end
3 lower than the end toward the tank the correct grade
may be easily made. The board is to be left permanently in
position The length of drain (which may be laid out in
several branches) depends on the character and ability of
tte soil to absorb drainage. Light, loose soils require about
3v to each person who uses the tank; heavy, day soils, as
much as 75' to the person Careful installation will be repaid
m care-free operation of the disposal bed Figures 18 and 19
indicate proper methods of laying out the tile under vary-
ing conditions

In heavy soils it is sometimes necessary to dig the disposal
trench a little deeper, back-filling with gravel or cinders
about 6", before the tile is laid, thereby providing a more
effident absorption area. In such cases dry wells may be
used to advantage

The cover of the tank, cast separately, should be made
carefully so the slabs may fit tightly together Preferably
each slab should be reinforced with iron rods, heavy mesh
wire fencing or similar materials When placing the cover
on the tank (except the one or two to be used as a manhole)
the top of the tank wall must be smeared with cement paste
about as thick as rich cream; so should the adjoining edges
of the successive slabs, except the manhole ones. A blue
print of construction details may be obtained free from the
the Portland Cement Association of Boston, Mass

Both an inner and an outer form must be constructed, ex-
cept where the ground is so firm that it will not cave in when
excavated vertically. Where this is possible the outer form
may be dispensed with Brush the concrete face of the forms
with crank-case drainings to make removal easy and prevent
excessive warping and destruction of the boards (Fig 17 )

The concrete mixture must be water-tight, and capable
of resisting the attack of sewage. Since the strength of con-
crete depends on the amount of water used, it follows that
the kind and amount of sand and pebbles used is of second-
ary importance, so long as the mixture is plastic and work-

SEWAGE DISPOSAL 79

able The two extremes of “soup” and “crackerjack” must
be carefully avoided

A trial mixture is recommended; namely, Portland ce-
ment, 1 bag; sand, 2 cubic feet; pebbles, 3 cubic feet; water
S gallons when the sand is moist, 6 when dry. If this
trial mixture is too sloppy, add a little more sand and a few

Octiui or Council
or rooms

Fig 17 Form for septic tank construction

more pebbles until itl becomes plastic and jelly-like; if too
stiff to be workable, add a little cement and water. To mnfeg
subsequent batches uniform, vary the amounts slightly
until die proper proportions and consistency are attained.

Gravel as dug from the pit, called "bank-run,” usually
contains too much sand, so is not economical to use as
found. It should be passed through a %"-mesh screen and
the resulting sand and gravel re-combined in proper propor-
tions as suggested ^

Care must be exercised to use sand free from loam or de-
fying vegetable matter When such is used it reacts against
the cement and prevents the making of good, water-tight

80

FIVE ACRES

concrete. To test sand for organic matter dissolve three
rounded teaspoonfuls of lye in one quart of clean water in a
Mason jar, thus making a 3 fo solution of caustic soda In
another clean glass bottle place 2" of sand, add enough soda
solution to cover the sand 1%" deep, shake well and allow
to stand 24 hours If the sand is clean the solution should be
nearly dear, but if dirty it will be dark, even coffee color
or darker Such sand is unlit to use for concrete, though if no
better is available it may be washed.

Ftg IS Swab to remove concrete in vitrified tile Erne from house to

septic tank

Some further cautions. Never locate a tile drain, espe-
cially one in which “effluent” is to flow, where tree roots can
reach it or they will dog it

Make the cover as tight as possible and without any vent
to the ground surface Be sure that a gas space of at least
12" is between the cover and the surface of the liquid m the
tnnfr This and the non-contact with the air favor uniform

temperature and effective action

If possible have the tank wholly below the ground surface
with at least 12" of earth on top of it If this cannot be
arranged otherwise, heap earth over it to even more than
that depth to assure uniform temperature
Never connect a septic tank to eaves or ‘leaders or other
excessive flow of water, all such water must be exdud
Never connect factory wastes to the tank as they S
interfere with operation Consult a sanitary engineer m such
cases before making connection
Locate the tank as near the house as possible so as »
avoid chilling the water unnecessarily dunn ®Jfjf
The exit drain may be extended as far as necessary o

branched

SEWAGE DISPOSAL 81

When branched the branches should start from a distribu-
tor box or tank made preferably of concrete.

Always make the drain pipe from the house to the tank
with vitrified tile with joints tightly packed in concrete or
melted tar to prevent leakage If the sewage is to contain

fgj

■

ifiSFI

SB

HHHIBI'i

1

m \ null mf f

Fig 19 Discharge drain from septic tank

grease the tile from the house should lead first to a “grease
trap” in which, rather than in the tank, this material will
collect so it may be removed

Various state boards of health have issued regulations
which cover the following typical points: Effluents of septic
or other settling tanks, or similar sewages, shall not be used
to water growing vegetables, garden truck, berries or low-
growing fruits, or to water vineyards or orchard crops when
windfalls or fruit lie on the ground; and no effluents, sludge
or screenings shall be permitted in ditches or pipes which
may be used to irrigate such crops. Nursery stock, cotton
and field crops may be watered with effluent provided that
no milch cows are pastured on the land while moist with
sewage, or have access to ditches carrying such.

82

FIVE ACRES

17

FUNCTIONS OF WATER*

Any soil can supply plants with all the water they need, and as fast
as they need it, so long as the moisture within the soil is not reduced
below one-third of the whole amount that it can hold

F H Stoker,

In Agriculture

T hough many factors are essential to plant growth, per-
haps the most important is water No other plays so
many roles It dissolves plant food in the soil, carries these
solutions to and through the plants, supplies hydrogen and
oxygen which combine with other elements to form sugar,
starch, oil, plant tissues, and many other compounds, keeps
plant cells distended, thus enabling them to perform their
functions; regulates the temperature of plants (and inci-
dentally of the air) by transpiration from the foliage, and
carries food constituents and soluble plant products from
part to part inside the plants for storage, assimilation or

81 The am ount of unassimilated water living plants contain
at any tune is much greater than that of all otter constitu-
ents combined — from 60% to 95% by weight pis indicates
the importance of an abundant supply of water because these
percentages must be maintained in order that plants may
live

Growth demands still more than the Percentegffi tnen-
tioned In addition to the amounts * assimilated a
current of water must be maintained from * &

the plant, then into the air as vapor This arnountiseno
mouslv greater than that assimilated or than that m the
phlnt at S any one time In hot, dry, wndy weather some
nlants tr ans pire in 24 hours amounts of water equal to or
gSVSSflin *5r own wdghtl Ita £■* *
influenced by such factors as character of foliage ( rg

• Ite chapter consists rmunly of excerpts from the author's Uodem
Guide to Successful Gardening

S3

FUNCTIONS OF WATER

small, unprotected or protected by hairs, thick skin, etc.),
by character of climate, size and development of plant and
amount of available water supply in the soil.

Studies of plant growth have proved that each pound of
“dry matter” in a mature crop has required from 200 to 900
pounds of water to develop, the usual range for common
crops in the Northeastern States being from 300 to 500
pounds 1 During the growing season an average crop requires
from 1 to iVz pounds for each square footl If this were
present on the surface all at one time it would mean a depth
of 3 %" to 9" l Hence the necessity of an adequate supply of
water for plant development.

Water exists in the soil in three conditions; hygroscopic,
free and capillary. Hygroscopic water is of no importance in
crop growing because apparently plants cannot utilize it.
It is neither moved by gravity nor by capillarity since it is
not in liquid form.

Free water, that recognized by sight and touch, fills hol-
lows during rains and sinks into the ground to the level of
“standing water” (the “water-table”). In swamps this is at
or above the ground surface; in shallow and undrained soils
perhaps only a few inches below; in deep and porous soils
often many feet beneath This “free” water supplies springs
and wells but is of use to plants only when near enough for
capillarity to draw it up to the region of plant roots. When
too near the surface it may injure cultivated crops by satu-
rating the ground, for then it excludes air, makes the soil
cold, prevents instead of favors nitrate formation, encour-
ages formation of compounds poisonous to plants, retards
decomposition of organic matter, and so on. It is corrected
by drainage (Chapter 18)

Capillary water, the thin film of water that surrounds soil
particles, is the main source of water in plant growth (bog
and water plants excepted) and is the most effective form
for dissolving and holding soluble plant nutrients As its
movement is from moist to less moist parts its general direc-
tion is upward from the water table to the air. The distance
it can move depends largely upon the character and arrange-
ment of the soil particles and the air spaces.

Soils of dose structure (clays, adobes and heavy loams)

84

FIVE ACRES

when cultivated properly usually have increased air spaces,
greater capillary water movement and water-holding power
than when mismanaged In loose and coarse soils (sandy
and peaty) the air spaces are already great, so stirring de-
creases capillary movement and water-holding power
You may control the capillary water supply by tforrwuang
water losses from the soil, by increasing water-holding power
(draining off superfluous free water), and by direct addition
of water (irrigation, Chapter 19).

One of the most important ways to prevent loss of water
is by tillage (Chapter 33) The other is mulching. As origi-
nally understood, a mulch (formerly spelled mulsh) is an
application of manure or any other loose material such as
leaves spread upon the soil surface to protect the roots of
newly planted trees, shrubs, tender plants, etc Today it is
extended to include earth kept loose by surface tillage to
check evaporation

Though this last has become almost universal, some scien-
tists doubt that a soil mulch alone lessens evaporation be-
cause, they declare, stirring the surface brings moist sod
from below into contact with the air and wastes the water
contained in it. Thus, they claim, evaporation is increased
Doubtless this is true when tillage is both deep and frequent
but where only the surface inch or less is stirred by weekly
raking, better crops are produced than in adjacent ones in
which the practise is not followed
When such loose materials as buckwheat hulls, shredded
corn stover, chopped straw or granulated peat moss are
available and cheap they are more effective than loose sod
in rWking moisture losses from tilled areas and when dug
into the soil they add humus For mulching trees and berry
plants coarser materials may be used — marsh hay, straw,
leaves, corn stalks, etc .

The most recent type of mulch is specially made, lm-
- pervious black paper spread upon the ground and between
or through which young plants are set It is sold direct by
the manufacturers and through garden supply stores
It has been so successfully used by Hawaiian sugar ana
pineapple growers that experiments in the United States and
Canada have been conducted, mainly with vegetables, be-

FUNCTIONS OF WATER

85

cause it is daimed that this material 'will shed water into the
soil, conserve water m the soil by checking evaporation,
increase germination, greatly reduce or even eliminate weed-
ing and cultivation, increase soil temperature, hasten matu-
rity, increase yields and produce larger, higher quality,
deaner crops But results have varied so widely that the
question is still open. Hence, to obtain additional compre-
hensive information, A E Hutchins conducted investiga-
tions during three years to determine effects of mulch paper
in companson with those of dean culture and to secure
inddental information. His conclusions (slightly con dens ed)
are quoted from Bulletin 298 of the Minnesota Experiment
Station as follows

1. A beneficial effect appears to be exerted by the paper.
In the experiments the increases obtained do not, in most
cases, appear to pay for the additional cost 2. Mulch paper
seems most benefidal with warm-season crops. 3 It seems
to hasten maturity of certain vegetables and may be profit-
able with crops that have a rdativdy lugh mar ke t value.

4. It also appears to be most beneficial under conditions
unfavorable to the optimum devdopment of the crop such
as poor soil, deficient predpitation and low temperature. As
there is no precise way by which dimatic conditions can be
predicted in a given locality, its value from this standpoint
can be determined only after the growing season is past.
Under favorable growing conditions, often little benefidal
and sometimes a detrimental effect is produced

5. Its effect varies with local climatic conditions, with each
crop grown and, to some extent, with different varieties of
the same crop Therefore each grower must determine the
value of paper for his particular crops and for his local con-
ditions 6 Warm-season crops of high acre value and yield
grown intensively are most likely to give the best results.
7. raper should not be used on low value crops 8 It larnelv
eliminates weeds in the covered area and thus conserves the
moisture and fertility they would use It also cuts down the
cost of cultivation but this item is offset to a large extent bv

Z SS T.f hy “‘*“ d •« the

m pIanti “8 transplanting

F ' 8 20 H “ d !Crraied d»«n outlet wd epron to prevent eroUon

FUNCTIONS OF WATER

87

You may increase the supply of capillary water in the soil
by drainage, fertilizing, adding humus and by watering or
irrigation.

Soluble salts in fertilizers in the surface foot of soil tend
to draw water from lower levds to dissolve them and to di-
lute the solutions As evaporation of the water in these solu-
tions is constant at the soil surface water flows upward to
maintain a balance. Hence a fertilized surface soil is nor-
mally moister than an unfertilized one.

Doubtless the most feasible way to increase water supply
in the majority of soils is to maintain the crumb-like struc-
ture that favors the ascent of capillary water from below.
The most important factor in attaining this end is not me-
chanical operations such as plowing, digging or cultivating
but humus in adequate supply. Tillage operations permit
particles of humus to wedge themselves between the mineral
particles where they act as sponges to soak up and hold
water raised by capillarity from standing water below. Thus
humus becomes the most important reservoir of water for
plants (Chapter 26)

In spite of all cultural precautions so far discussed to as-
sure and conserve water supply artificial methods of water-
ing are often necessary or at least advisable, especially in
localities where long diy spells are common. (Fig. 28.) Some
•f these methods (watering pot and hose) are capable of
exceedingly limited serviceable application; others are in-
feasible under various specific conditions (furrow systems
•n sloping ground) ; and still others are applicable anywhere
that water is needed (overhead irrigation).

In view of the figures already quoted, the limited use of
watering pot and hose is evident. Moreover, each pntailc
work that may be avoided by more adequate methods. As
ordinarily used — sprinkling only the surface — these two gar-
den accessories do more harm than good Mere sprinkling
encourages the roots to develop near die surface where they
are almost certain to be injured by summer hppt , esp eciall y
if watering is neglected for a few days in dry weather.

If the same amount of water were applied once "a week
instead of a little every day the soil would be soaked (theo-
retically) many times as deeply, the roots would develop

88 FIVE ACRES

deeply and the plants benefit in proportion Still better than
hose is irrigation (Chapter 19.)

18

DRAINAGE

There is a false notion that where water does not lodge on the
surface of a soil, it is “dry enough ” Stagnant moisture, either m
the surface or subsoil, is highly injurious — ruinous to fruit trees
All soils, then, not perfectly free from stagnant moisture, both above
and below, should be drained

Patrick Barry,

In Barry’s Fruit Garden

U nless soil is well drained there is no use trying to pro-
duce profitable crops Yet it is astounding how many
fanners and fruit growers and even truck fanners try to
make a living off such soils Undrained lands are not merdy
wet but cold and often acid Because of the wetness they
cannot be worked nearly as early in spring as well drained
lands, when seed is sown it germinates poorly, unevenly or
not at all, such plants as start develop roots near the sur-
face and when summer comes they suffer because they can-
not then reach water which by that time is at a much lower
level Crops are therefore late, poor and unprofitable^
Where land is not naturally well drained, artificial drain-
age is a necessity It is often the one factor that ^makes all
the difference between bankruptcy and profit From a
financial standpoint, underdrainage can be considered I ns a
long-time investment. Tile drainage of agncultural lands is
a comparatively expensive improvement and ‘Pjj
expended in drainage work cannot be recalled or 1 : « ■ , '

but owing to its permanent nature a properly installed dra n
age system should continue to return diyidcnds for many
years Just how many is problematical, but in a ge

Ontario Department of Agncultural Engineering

DRAINAGE

tile drains may be said to last a lifetime Underdrainage,
like most other long-time investments, wffl . often pay divi-
dends sufficient to return the original capital in two or three

y AH soils not naturally drained require drainage. These
usually are cultivated areas with fair surface drainage but
with heavy subsoil, heavy day soils with little or no surface

Fig 21 Popular tools lor ditch digging Above, correct way to dig ditch

drainage; rolling areas with impervious subsoil; areas, large
and small, saturated long enough each year to destroy the
physical condition of the soil and to interfere with spring
seeding and harvesting operations; pot-holes and swamp
areas

Drainage benefits crops by permitting earlier spring seed-
ing, making the land more easily worked; encour aging
higher percentage of seed germination, making the soil more
favorable to root development, hence providing more mois-
ture and plant food (Fig. 25) ; reducing winter killing; con-
trolling weeds more easily; and by increasing crop yields.

Whether the area to be drained is large or small t whether
one drain or many may be needed, it is generally advisable
to have the area surveyed and a plan drawn to scale. Such

yu , FIVE ACRES

a plan mil show the proper locations for all mains, sub-

marns, laterals and silt basins, the number and sfee of tile

41x6 possible grades and depths, the best pos-

hn!}%H Utle t ° r f UtIetS and * e locations of obstructions,
buildings, trees, fences, etc. '

Cawie hub CutZ'/f

Fig 22 Drain digging Survej states (right) with gage frame posts beside
them Cross-bars made level Gage rod and cord used to died depth

With this information the fanner will be in a position to put
in as much as his time, help or financial conditions will per-
mit The main drains should be installed first and the others
added at will Further, he may call for bids on a contract
and have a basis upon which to calculate the cost of the
system Since the same area often lends itself to several dif-
ferent drainage schemes, the most economical may be
chosen

DRAINAGE 91

Figure 24 shows three methods of draining the same 10-
acre field in which it is assumed that the slope of the land is
equally favorable to each system and under each wOl be
equally well drained. However, as figured out Plan A (her-
ring bone system) costs $45.98 an acre; Plan B $42.59 and
Plan C $41.65 Moreover, Plan B is more difficult for the
machine operator to install because of the number of short

drains. A^ study of these plans shows the advantage of hav-
ing a drmnage survey made by a competent engineer whose
jS? " to .nstoll toe mos, ActaS eonS'eSS

dfc “ •"* “• SdSSfc

92

FIVE ACRES

necessary, one can make use of an ordmary plow, a ditcher,
a ditching machine, or other digging machinery now on the
market. In any case the following points should be kept in
mind.

The grade must be uniform so there will be no depressions

drainage

93

to collect sediment; a solid bottom is essential-tile laid on
muck or other soft material are likely tosbiitoutofaUgn
ment and to obstruct the flow of water, stones and other ob-
structions encountered in the trench must be removed, the
holes being carefully filled and tamped to give a solid bot-
tom only the best tile should be used, blinding and back-

Fig 25 Effects of drauuge on toot development

by rolling in stones or by horses stepping in the trench;
junctions and outlets must be carefully constructed; and
trees likely to block the tile with their roots must be re-
moved

Ordinarily, tile should be laid as dosely together as the
cut ends will permit In heavy day soils a little opening is
not objectionable, but in sands or sandy loams it is necessary
to fit them dosely together. In the latter it is often rWrahV
to cover the upper half of the tile with tar paper to prevent
the sand from entering Whether die are laid by hand or
with a hook is not important so long as they are kept in
proper alignment and well graded. Junctions should be care-
fully constructed in order that no obstruction may offer re-
sistance to the flow of water. A few indies of soil, preferably

94

FIVE ACRES

the surface soil, should be placed over the tQe as soon as they
are laid to make sure they trill not shift by accident Back-
filling should be done as early as possible because soil often
becomes baked after rain or in other ways is hard to move.

Depths and distances apart of drains depend almost en-
tirely upon the nature of the soil. The lighter the soil the
deeper and farther apart, in heavy soil they must be placed
doser together and somewhat shallower

Fig 26 As the upper diagram shows, plants ro/aised beds 7“^
usually suffer for lack of water except in poorly drained soils The lower
diagram shows roots nearer water supply

Of an problems,

lowing suggestions may be hdpful Underta^ a „
drainage during the driest part ? { the s ^so > ^

after opening the drain into quicksand leaveit unW m
water drains out so the sand may solidify an remove
more easily completed, in some cases it . „ w heel

the last foot or so by hand, as action of togm*
seems to provoke the trouble; sod thrown m the trm
Sound the joints is practical for short
dust, shavings, gravel and

advantage; cemented sewer ^pe iW be f on

some cases, a silt basm (Fig. 27; snouiu uc

DRAINAGE 95

the line of tile as soon as possible after passing through the
quicksand area and the deposits of silt removed when neces-
sary.

Tree roots seldom interfere with a drain unless it carries
seepage or spring water during the dry season All trees such

as willow, poplar, soft maple, dm and dder bushes should
be removed from the location of a drain. They are hkdv to
dog the tile with roots. Where it is desirable to leave a
shade tree, cemented sewer-pipe should be used for at least
SO on each side of the tree position. In orchards and perma-
nent crops, cut-off drains should be installed to remove all
seepage water as this has a tendency to feed the tile drain

tSST and ^ ** tt0UbIe by root development

96

FIVE ACRES

Always the outlet of a drain should be well protected The
last 8' or 10' should consist of a piece of iron pipe or sewer-
pipe A retaining wall may be a necessity, so -may be a con-
crete or stone block to spread the water and prevent it from
eroding the earth at the exit Protection of the mouth to pre-
vent the trampling of cattle and horses is also essential and
so is a grating, preferably hinged or hung from above, to
prevent the entrance of small animals (Fig 27 )

Tile may be made of day or concrete They should have
the following characteristics. Smoothness inside to reduce
friction and promote rapid flow; hardness to assure dura-
bility, good shipping and handling qualities, good shape-
cylindrical — not warped, dean cut ends to assure good
fitting; freedom from burnt limestone to prevent breakage
due to slaking of the lime.

1 9

IRRIGATION

It is much wiser to give plenty of water once eveiy few days, than
a little each day The latter method keeps the surface moist, and the
roots naturally nse to the moisture, so that they are near the surface
and will be injured by the heat of the following day Give enough
water to go deep or dse just enough to wash the leaves
Eurra Loring Fullerton,

In Etna to Make a Vegetable Garden

W hether or not it will pay to irrigate is a proMem
which varies widely according to character and dram-
age of the soil, topography, crops, temperatures, coste, to
of application, water supply, quantity of watM- needed, rel^
tion of irrigation to tillage methods and, perhap
with the differences (timeliness and untomelmess) oframM
In arid regions irrigation is a necessity jft: mdudes dams,
reservoirs, canals, ditches, flumes, furrows an ano lvmg
that have to do with supplying, condurtmga° PP f ^ e
water to immense tracts of land at about ground
Adds Usually it involves large scale engineering p

IRRIGATION

97

beyond the scope of this book The only application of these
methods with which I have had experience is the furrow
system by which attempts were made before the advent of
overhead irrigation, to grow strawberries in Michigan As
both the texture and the quality of the fruit were impaired
the trials were abandoned On Long Island I have used the
overhead system in strawberry, raspberry, and vegetable
growing with gratifying results, mainly because it assures

MUBl BEARING
HANGER

Fig 28 Portable or temporary overhead irrigation system

better control and economy of water than does the furrow
system »

Some form of overhead irrigation is applicable to every
conceivable condition * It may be either stationary or por-
table, hand operated or self-operating, laid on or (pre-
ferably) raised above the surface to suit local conditions.
Its first cost in any case is not much greater than an equiva-
lent of hose and nozzles but it will last almost indefini tely
J-shose usually must be replaced in two or three years’

. 655611 tial feature of the various systems is the sDe-

“^tructed "nozzle." The one I have throws a streL
in diameter. When the water pressure is turned on full
throe is no wind the minute drops into which the
streams breaks fall about W away from the nozzle Under

w£S£ f °“ 0m " ' P ‘° ted fom tlE « **» emk to Sue

FIVE ACRES

greater pressure SV is often reached By changing the pres-
sure, reducing the flow or turning the nozzle at various an-
311(1 ? neariy 0 PP osI te directions breadths of 80* to
100 may be covered For a small additional outlay a water
motor operated by the current of water will do the turmna
automatically. 6

To irrigate vegetables and berries the best way is to place

Fig 39 Typical lay-out of overhead irrigation system

straight lines of pipe 50' to 7V or 80' apart depending upon
the pressure and with nozzles at 4' intervals They may be
laid on the ground but will work better if raised. When only
a foot or so above ground they are inconspicuous and easy
to step over, the iron post supports cost less than do those
6' high, are Iks likely than tall ones to be shifted by winds,
more convenient and easily removed and replaced for plow-
ing or digging Tall ones, which are easy to walk under,
throw the water farther, so are often better than low ones,
especially for low pressures of water Manufacturers supply
wheels or rollers to facilitate turning the pipes
For small gardens one line may be made to serve by hav-
ing it in readily portable sections Each line may he con-
nected with a hydrant by hose or have its permanent supply
pipe with a gate valve and a turning union to control the
water distribution For convenience, however, a water motor

IRRIGATION

99

is far better than a handle because the whole area will be
sure to get an even distribution oi water.

AnnvltAnfl «*t nnntn nm linn 4-

urw cui uiuvi objriua m aw vu kjrpb ut guui

every elevation, every size of garden or field. As the water
is evenly distributed in minute drops it sinks slowly in the
soil without puddling or baking and neither seeds nor plants
are injured. Also the gentle showers cleanse foliage and
encourage healthful, vigorous development.

In view of all these advantages, low cost, durability of
the equipment, positive insurance against damage to plants
by dry weather and time saving such a system will effect, you
should certainly provide overhead irrigation, choice being
made after considering the specific merits of several styles.
If your conditions suggest any difficulty do not hesitate to
ask manufacturers or their agents for suggestions as to the
best type of apparatus and equipment to use. When you do
so be sure to give as complete data as possible so these peo-
ple may understand the whole problem It is to their inter-
est as well as yours to advise you correctly.

The most significant experiments in irrigation that have
come to my attention are those two-, to six-year ones re-
ported by Erwin and Haber in Iowa Experiment Station
Bulletin 308, from which the following statements have been
condensed The data should furnish a basis upon which
65 nnf tes 85 10 cos * s and benefits may be calcul ated

Where the normal annual precipitation is ample for the
production of vegetable crops irrigation must be regarded as
crop insurance. The question is, then, how often do drouths
injurious to vegetable crops occur and how much may ir-
rigation increase yields? 3

From the standpoint of moisture supply the summer
months are usually, the critical time for vegetable produc-
tion. A study of United States Weather Bureau records of a
typical locality shows that summer drouths usually occur
on an average of once in three years, that the range Sf duZ

aee , average 26 da ys and that the aver-

^w e “ aenc y rainfall during drouths is 2 87"

drS SUpply in . the subs °a at the beginning of a

th has, of course, an important bearing on the effect of

100 FIVE ACRES

the drouth [Hence the importance of drainage and deep
preparation of the soil — Chapters 18 and 26 ] It is generally
accepted that a minimum application for vegetable produc-
tion of of water, either from rainfall or irrigation is, in
most instances, not the most profitable. In dry seasons at
least double this amount may be applied to advantage
The number of ten-day periods in the summer months
having less than of rainfall is suggestive of the possible

« — * —

Gate Valves-<

r 5?

1

11 SSSI

11 js-|

■ Dram Pfugs-s''

Stands-^

Fig 30 Circular spray irrigation system showing staggered, equilateral
arrangement at a, a, a, to assure best distribution of water

need for supplementary irrigation Four such periods oc-
curred in each of four out of five years but only one in tne
fifth.

High temperatures (90° or above) which usually accom-
pany summer drouths deplete the supply of soil moisture and
increase the water requirements of plants Hence, even m
seasons of normal rainfall irrigation may be an important
factor in tiding over temporary periods of lugi tempera
ture That such conditions are frequent is shown by tne
weather records which cover seven consecutive
or even higher temperatures are not necessarily
except as they are accompanied by deficienqy of mo

SU The chief sources of water for irrigation are ponds, reser-
voirs, artesian wells and municipal water supplies

IRRIGATION

101

The size of the plants and the amount of f ohage influence
the desirable amount of water to supply. Shallow rooted
crops, such as radishes and onions, usually require more
frequent applications of water than do tomatoes or carrots
Light and frequent watering is inadvisable; applications
of less than %" is considered enough for seed-beds and
young vegetables and from W' to 1" for maturing crops
An “acre-inch” (1" of water over an acre), requires
27,152 gallons or approximately 110 tons
Overhead irrigation (Fig 28) may serve as an aid to cul-
tural practices in the following ways 1 To tide over periods
of drouth which might otherwise wipe out or materially re-
duce the yield. 2 To make it posable, through the control
of moisture conditions, to produce larger yidds. 3. To insure
better quality of vegetables by making possible continuous
growth, which is necessary to high quality 4 To obtain a
good start for vegetables transplanted into dry soil. 5 To
obtain prompt germination at sowing time, especially of suc-
cession crops, which, if delayed, may miss the higher mar-
kets or be damaged by frost. 6. To make posable die prepa-
ration of ground which, without irrigation, would be too dry
to plow ot pulverize 7. To protect certain crops from light
frosty injury. [Irrigation lines may also be used to apply
fertilizers in solution and to wash undissolved fertilizers off
foliage.]

Though the foregoing points represent the main advan-
tages of overhead irrigation they do not necessarily mean
that irrigation will pay. Against these advantages must be
set the cost of irrigation, before a fair judgment of economic
value may be reached

Circular spray systems distribute water from nozzles fW«»r l
to the tops of upright equidistant pipes distributed uni-
formly through the fidd They are supplied with water
through the uprights, placed 30' to 50' apart on underground
pipe lines. As the nozzles are placed at the corners of eaui-
lateral triangles (Fig. 30) they assure a more even distribu-
tion of water than if placed at the comers of squares or rec-
late f al Iine •“* sometimes each nozzle is
tnii t ^ f d . V a va ^ ve * systan is largdy confined to light
1 that takes water rapidly and to crops that will not be

102

FIVE ACRES

injured by coarse sprays It seems more particularly adapted
to irrigate fruit than vegetables and is used largely in citrus
orchards frith nozzles higher than the trees
When irrigating it is important to moisten the. ground
thoroughly to the bottom of the root zone each time On
day soils the application must be slow to prevent puddling
and to allow the water to seep well into the ground 'pus
demands more frequent turning of the lines than for light
soils: hence the advantage of automatic turning Nozzles

Kg 31 T^-al fittings for overhead

main 1 Te>. \ .lh vertical and s.de openings X _ Upright vai«
N Nipple £. E'bow U, Turning union F, Handle lor ungation

toe & on handle L, Xoz£ tat Z, Brass norf* con-

nection to smaller pipe O, Cap or flushing cod. P, Post support

smaller than usual are also an advantage mi
ground should not be allowed to become **>**««««
ings and then soaked, but kept moist. not wet aU the tane^
The actual time of operation vanes widely from year to

pear due to variations of rainfall and the
ng seasons. Svstems of one to four acres in the Middle At
antic States mav require pumping averages of about 100
lours annuallv: in the Middle West, probably ISO or more
lours. Gasolene and ofl to operate a three-horse-^wer engm
vould be about 7< an hour, or S7. for 100 Jh^re
As soon as the irrigation season ends the madun^fB
je overhauled, the pipes thoroughly drai oDerations

ind repairs made when necessary. Before startog °PJ^ g£t

ach spring the pipes S overhauling

id of any loose rust partjdes. Hepaus mi {ojje

hould not cost more than $10 ™aUyfo 5j£, e and the
o four or five acres. If properly handled the engin

IRRIGATION

103

pump should last for 12 to IS years and the piping still
longer.

As adequate presentation of construction, water sources,
engines, motors, pumps, pressures and other details would
demand excessive space the reader is referred to U S. De-
partment of Agriculture Farmers’ Bulletin 1529
The initial outlay for equipment for the Iowa experiments,
exclusive of pump and power, was estimated at $400. Inter-
est on the investment at 6% would be $24. an acre annually
and the annual charge-off for depreciation (20-year period)
at 5% would be $20 The item of repairs is practically nil.
Aside from an occasional adjustment of the water motors
which turn the sprinkler lines, there were no repairs The
cost of water per acre-inch was arbitrarily placed at 10<S per
1,000 gallons or $2 72 per acre-inch By readjusting the
above figures to fit any local conditions, a grower may de-
termine his irrigation costs for a given season
There are no hard and fast rules by which to decide when
to irrigate An examination of the soil is helpful in deter-
mining moisture conditions, but the best guide is the plant
itself. Checking of plant growth is a sign that moisture is
needed, wilting is another sign
Temporary wilting such as affects plants on hot days, is
not necessarily a symptom of moisture deficiency Plants
will recover from such wilting if sufficient water is in the soil.
But if they remain flaccid until early morning they indicate
permanent wilting, so water should be applied promptly; for
if the wilting is allowed to continue, the quality and suc-
culence of the crop are likely to be seriously impaired and
the yield greatly reduced

The question is often asked: Is it injurious to irri gat e
while the sun is shining? There need be no hesitation in
watering plants at any time they need water But in over-
head irrigation less water is lost by evaporation at night be-
cause of the lower temperature and higher humidity fin

pSf ] W6ather dS0 &e bss “ Iess 111311 wBen high winds

Irrigation experiments with porous, but tight-weave can
yas hose (Fig 32) to gnmto/potato’es, stSS%SS
frrnts and garden truck,” conducted by O. E Robey of

104

FIVE ACRES

the Michigan Experiment Station (Extension Bulletin 133)
have proved that the method is practical, profitable and use-
ful in meeting special situations where sod conditions, crop,
ground contour or capital investment would put other
methods out of the question The following statements con-
densed from the bulletin are of interest

Fig 32 Typical lay-out of porous hose irrigation system

When the hose (dosed at the end remote from Resupply
pipe) becomes distended by slight pressure ttevrateTOo^
out through pores in small drops, not as sp ys , . .
thus preventing erosion of the soflandwetfang B

The supply pipe * looted,
of the field and a pressure of 15 to 20 pounas to m 4

inch maintained in the porous hnes . OH3e other-

great old fire hose will serve as temporary suppy PP
wSe iron pipe will be necessary Though the oOTi
W XuJSn, a better distnMon may be
ins It run down Lengths of over 600 ^.ve woracu
especially when heavy weight canvas is used near the sour

FROST DAMAGE PREVENTION 105

nd lighter at the distal and when the current is up grade
nd the reverse when it is down.

Though the hose in some of the experiments has lasted
bree years its durability has not been fully determined Its
[fe may be prolonged by treating with a solution of one gal-
on asphalt paint, % pint each of kerosene and gasolene
horougbly stirred before applying either with a brush or by
oaking and running through a clothes-wringer to squeeze
mt the excess. It must be dried for 24 hours at least before
ising

In use the hose is merely laid between the crop rows, the
water turned on until enough has been applied, then moved
to the next place Soil conditions and methods of tillage will
decide the width of effective distribution.

20

FROST DAMAGE PREVENTION

A good deal remains to be learned about ordiard heating, and even after
the general principles are better understood than they are today, there
will always be need of careful adjusting of the methods to the re-
quirements of each particular orchard

Frank A Waugh,

In The American Peach Orchard

T he killing of plants and plant parts by frost may often
be prevented by simple, inexpensive,’ easily applied
means Before we discuss these, however, let us see what frost
is and how it acts

. Frost the term which indicates the conversion of a liquid
?. solld by tfae reduction of temperature Though this
definition covers all cases such as the solidification of molten
iron and other metals it is popularly understood to mean
tne formation of ice from water at the temperature of 32° F
As air cools its power to hold water In vapor form de-
creases until it deposits more or less in tiny drops (dew) on

rt?2*S ?r i han 5*“’ such “ toU *Se The temperatures
at which this deposition occurs depend upon the proportion

106 FIVE ACRES

of water vapor in the air at the time This varies as the
cooling proceeds During summer the dew point, as the dep-
osition or saturation temperature is called, is often above
60°, in winter often below zero
When the dew point is below the freezing point the water
vapor condenses on still cooler surfaces in the form of fine
particles of ice, which because they reflect the s unligh t and
appear white we call hoar or white frost Often a similar
appearance or “false hoar frost” occurs when the tempera-
ture is several degrees above freezing point Usually this is
due to the way the light is reflected from the dew
The condensation of water vapor tends to check the fall
of temperature because what is called “latent heat” in this
vapor is returned to the air which, scientific instruments
prove, becomes measurably warmer Thus within variable
limits the deposition of dew protects plants from frost dam-
age as the temperature approaches or in some cases even
goes below the freezing point This accounts for many
escapes of plants that would have been killed by frost had
the dew point been below instead of above the freezing point.
We can often take advantage of this phenomenon and save
our plants, as explained further on
Plants vary in their resistance to frost damage according
to their origin and their condition Those which originate in
a cold climate (apple, cabbage) naturally are strongly re-
sistant, those from a warm climate (orange, tomato) are
weak and easily destroyed Between these extremes are many
intermediate grades Those plants that, in a given locality,
live through the northern or alpine winter in spite of deep
freezing of the soil are called hardy m that locality, those
that succumb to the slightest frost are tender, and those
between are variously classed as half-hardy, semi-hardy,
half-tender and semi-tender (fig, French artichoke)

Tender plants are usually injured more or less when the
temperature continues at 32°, 31°, or 30° for several hours,
especially when bright sunshine or quickly warming air
strikes them in early morning Few if any of them can stand
lower degrees than these for even a short time, half-bar y
plants often survive temperatures of 20° but seldom lower

degrees

FROST DAMAGE PREVENTION

107

In all these cases plant condition plays an important part;
for plants that have made rapid growth, have soft, immature
tissues and are full of water, are far less resistant than those
which have developed slowly, have denser, stockier growth
and are less full (perhaps even in need of) water This state-
ment applies to hardy as well as tender plants; for even
trees normally hardy in a given locality may be winter-killed
because they made a late, sappy growth which did not ripen
or which was full of water when cold weather arrived.

The mere deposition of frost on the surface of foliage does
not necessarily indicate that the plants have been killed or
even damaged. But when the air is too dry for dew to be de-
posited they may be frozen by a dry wind, or on a rfpar
night without the deposition of either dew or hoar frost. In
such cases damage is due to freezing of the water inside the
plant and the consequent rupture of the tissues. When the
sun shines on tissues thus injured the internal ice melts, the
leaves have no chance to mend the broken re1k ; S o the leaves
droop, wdt and turn black; hence the term “black frost.”

Anything that will prevent the fall of temperature to or
below the freezing point and anything that will shield the
plants from direct sunshine while they are still frozen,
covered with hoar frost or severely chilled will help ward
off damage or even save plants that would otherwise die or
be seriously checked in their development. A wind that
springs up in the evening, clouds that appear during the
night or early morning, or a rain that follows a frost will
often either prevent the freezing or check the thawing proc-
ess and thus save the plants. All these phenomena of Nature
are, of course, beyond our control but we may imita te them
as outlined further on.

We can largely control the development and therefore the
hardiness of our plants in several ways. For instance, during
spring we can avoid over-feeding our young plants with
stimulant fertilizers such as manure and nitrate of soda and
also avoid giving them excess of water Both these tend to
make sappy growth easily killed by frost. On the other hand

b £n eep i? g P ]ants cool > ^“ost cold (“hardening them
off ) as they approach the time for transplanting to the onen
ground we can increase the hardiness of hardyf semi-hardy

108

FIVE ACRES

and even tender plants Plants so prepared will stand cold
snaps whereas those of the same species not so inured would
probably be killed or so chilled that they would “sulk” for
several weeks before recovering or renewing a normal rate of
growth

Similarly we may prevent winter injury of hardy trees,
shrubs and vines by supplying ample water during summer
and early autumn, withholding it later, avoiding applications
of stimulant fertilizers and manures from midsummer for-
ward, counteracting any excess of these by liberal dressings
of potash and phosphorc acid during early fall (Chapter
28) or by sowing buckwheat in July or rye m September or
both these together in July. As these crops grow they remove
excess water and nitrogenous plant food from the soil and
develop plants which when plowed or dug into the ground in
spring return the plant food and their own bodies to form
humus

Fortunately we can predict accurately enough for
practical purposes when to expect frost The daily forecasts
by the United States Weather Bureau give suggestions as to
the general weather to expect; but we can make our own
observations and predictions Local conditions influence
temperature For instance, a near-by body of water, such as
a lake, the sea, a wide or a deep river, or even a large pond
affects the rate at which air temperature changes In spring,
because the water is cold, it keeps the air also cold and thus
more or less retards plant development In autumn the re-
verse effect occurs, the water being warm not only warms
the air but fills it with water vapor thus warding off frost

Open and flat country and small villages are more J&ely
to suffer from late spring and early autumn frosts ' (ten are
large cities and their near-by suburbs because, in tne
former, heat loss by radiation into spaoe is m^e rapid m
dear, dean air and under doudless skies ^

where the air is filled with smoke and dust and where tn
Ires in countless houses, factories and other buildings di

rectly raise the temperature , . b ^

Dark colored, sandy and well drained sodsa i .

hold more sun heat than do light colored, dayey P
drained ones so are less likely to be frosty Other con

FROST DAMAGE PREVENTION

109

ditions being equal, southern and eastern slopes are also
wanner than western and northern ones because they more
quickly absorb the sun’s rays Though this favors earliness
of plant development it often makes the growing of certain
fruits (apricot, peach, Japanese plum, more especially)

precanous or impossible because the flowers are encouraged
to open so early that spring frost kills them and thus pre-
vents fruit production, though not usually lulling the trees.

We can discover for ourselves that cold air, being heavier
than warm air, flows like water irom high to low ground
and “settles” in hollows or “pockets” unless it can drain to
still lower levels or be driven out by wind; that frosts are
much more likely to occur when the air is still, the sky rtp^r
and the stars brilliant than when there is wind or douds,
especially when the former is strong and the latter cover the
whole sky The direction and force of the wind also help
in making a local forecast. One that blows strongly from the
north is far more Ukdy to bring cool or cold weather than
one from the south, just as one from the east is likely to
bring douds and rain and one from the west dear skip* and
colder weather The rate at which the barometer rises also
helps because it indicates the approach of dear weather
and, if rapid, also of cold weather
An unusually warm spell is almost sure to be followed by
a cooler or cold one because our general weather moves in
prodigious waves from southwest to northeast across the
country. Hence a light frost following a warm spell is likdy
to do more damage than an even more severe one following
cool weather For this reason we should be on our guard
when one of these warm spdls occurs in spring— -be ready to
protect our seedlings, newly transplanted plants and the
flowers on our fruit trees and bushes '

When the sky is doudy, when there is fog or even when a
haze occurs during or toward evening, frost is less likdy to
occur than when the night is dear because these conditions
of moisture in the air prevent loss of heat from the earth
A reliable sign of approaching frost is the rate at which
the temperature falls during the late afternoon and eariv

7 SS ** l°° 0 l IeSS ’ dear and “o S,

a f afl of 2 or more an hour between four and dght o’dock

112

FIVE ACRES

21

LIVE STOCK

The animals of the farm should be regarded as living factories that
arc continuously converting their feed mto products useful to man
A fact of great economic importance is that a large part of the food
they consume is of such character that humans cannot directly utilize
it themselves

Henry and Morrison,

In Feeds and Feeding

W hether or not to keep live stock of any kind on the
small farm is a question to be decided only after the
pros, but especially the cons, have been carefully considered.
Perhaps the most serious objection to the majority is that
most animals require space that can usually be more profit-
ably employed on such small places
In many cases there is less objection to a team of horses,
than to other live stock (except hogs) provided that toe ani-
mals are to be used a large part of toe tone for plowing,
hauling, cultivating, and other work The pleasure horse,-
especially in these days of autos, has no place on toe smaU
farm; his care and toe area he reqmrestoEaynotoingo
the cost of his keep, may be more profitably devoted to other

P Even toe work horse is open to toe objection that tough
he may be a good worker there fe “ *2

be fed, groomed, bedded and watered almost as > ‘Mgenfly
while idle as when at work andpven tBMjcmjnM
rise in order to keep him in good health So fa
farm is concerned heavy work such as plomng
more economically with a rented team _or a , tea mostly

a hired plowman or tractor owner, and ugh «ne-

or a wheelhoe Haolmg is more e>pe-

expert her, era though Ae *11 grt much jgajj*
v^etable and other crops In addition to tins, more o

113

LIVE STOCK

area will be needed to supply her with fodder even when
hay and grain are bought. On a ten-acre farm one acre in
forage means 10% of the gross area; on one of five acres,
20% 1 These percentages are far too high to warrant keeping
the usual cow for her milk and manure The amount of milk
needed by the family might better be bought so sis to release
her supporting land for the production of definitely profit-
able fruits or vegetables.

The cow is objectionable from another standpoint; she
positively must be tended and milked at least twice daily,
thus tying down someone to this duty. Neglect or postpone-
ment of milking may be fraught with danger of impairment
of her ability as a milker, if not to the animal herself. Fur-
thermore she should always be milked by the same person,
not a series of experimenters who differ in their natures and
abilities as milkers, for thus she may acquire bad habits

On a farm large enough to warrant keeping a cow and
where she may be properly managed she is a highly desir-
able animal to have; for if a good one she should not only
produce ample milk for drinking, cookery, butter and pot
cheese for the family and manure of special value in vege-
table growing but profitably consume large quantities of
unsalable produce and waste, thus converting worthless
material into profit.

Though many a grade cow is a good milker, experially if
her sire be a dairy breed bull, pure bred ones of the dairy
breeds are more likely to be reliable, so preference should tie
given to them. Among dairymen who supply city markets
the Holstein is the favorite because she is noted for abundant
production; but the quality of the milk is distinctly poor
when compared with that of other dairy breeds The Hol-
steins are also poor foragers. When turned out to graze the
pasturage must be good or their yields of milk will

The Channel Island breeds (Jersey, Alderney and Guern-
sey) are famous for the richness of their milk but they
require more care in stabling, dieting and handling than
other cattle. Of these the Guernsey is probably the hardi es t
and most easily managed.

Iam prejudiced in favor of the Ayrshire because for more
than a century my relatives have been breeders of it. The ani-

114

FIVE ACRES

4

mate arc hardy, active, wonderful foragers, abundant produ-
cers of excellent milk which though it is less rich than that
of the Jersey and less copious than that of the Holstein it is,
in my estimation, more palatable than that of either The
best cow I have ever owned was a pure bred Ayrshire for
which I paid (not to any relativel) only $75 and which
supplied my family with all the milk, cream, butter, and pot
cheese we needed, besides furnishing all the whole milk two
other families wanted.

Sheep have no place on the small farm As they require
gracing range cheaper, rougher, untillable land should be
devoted to them Moreover they should be kept in moderate
to large sized flocks in order to have enough high grade wool
to interest buyers Similar comments apply to lamb raising
for meat.

Where enough untillable grass land exists on the small
farm it is more sensible to keep a milch goat or two than a
cow or sheep In fact, a goat will thrive where a sheep would
starve As the animal is hardy it will largely shift for itself
except in winter when only the most ordinary shelter and
feeding care are necessary Its milk is highly nutritious and
is specially noted for cheese making

The one domestic quadruped that best fits the conditions
of the small farm is the hog He requires smaller area than
any other — merely a pen and some range, with shade and a
good wallowing place Except to provide him such items,
good and ample feed, be demands no unreasonable time or
attention. He is the most wonderful of all domestic animals
as a converter of waste and worthless fruit and vegetables,
even weeds into profitable meat Hence his pet name, mort-

jage lifter! , ......

It is not profitable on the small farm to breed pigs but it
is highly so to buy young ones in the spring when only a few
peeks old, feed them until fall and then convert them into
pork, sausage, headcheese, scrapple, hverwurst, picluea
Mg’s-feet, and other toothsome delicacies By purchasing
in spring and butchering or selling in the fall the faroier
nay be relieved of the care and cost of winter feeding

[our to six months , . . „ aaf

Rabbits and Belgian hares, kept not as pets but for meat,

115

LIVE STOCK

are often profitable where most of the feed is produced on
the place and where marketing conditions are favorable.
They require good housing, exercise paddocks and preferably
summer range on clover or alfalfa. During winter they need
good hay with regulative rations of cabbage and other vege-
tables As they are prolific breeders and grow rapidly they
soon begin to return profits to the man who takes good care
of them

Personally I believe that no farm is complete without a
dog, not necessarily a pure bred animal but one wdl trained
and obedient Among the 15 or 20 I have owned since boy-
hood the worst happened to be pure bred — poultry killers,
garden destroyers, cow chasers and thieves But their records
are not mentioned to condemn good breeding’ The best was
a 50-50 Airedale-Colhe — powerful, intelligent, well trained
(thanks to his former owner, not myself' ), a splendid
watdidog and protector of wife and playfellow of the chil-
dren, wonderful ratter and woodchuck destroyer and without
a fault. No wonder he was stolen!

Though I strongly advocate having such a dog I as insist-
ently urge that he be not allowed to feed and house himself
as best he can but be given his own special, comfortable
sleeping quarters, his own feeding and drinking vessels and
that he be well fed at regular intervals Surely he is entitled
to expect these “The laborer is worthy of his reward.”

As strongly do I sponsor the cat. Nothing equals him
(especially her) as a preventive and cure of mouse and rat
trouble But, more than the dog, the cat needs protection
when outdoors. As the law gives hunters the right to shoot
any cat seen in hunting territory he should be taught while
still young to wear a conspicuous, fairly stiff, leather collar,
but loose enough to slip over his head in an emergency. A
bell is a good thing to add to the collar because he can ring
it when he wants to go out or come in the house. (At least,
ours doesl ) It will not interfere with mouse and rat hunting
as he soon learns how to keep it mute' Good feeding will
remove the need of killing birds Training while young and
whipping him across the face and head with any dead bird
he has just caught, will usually cure him unless the hahit
has been allowed to form

116

FIVE ACRES

Pr° p eriy managed and properly located live stock of al-

Cl ff eXCept scrubs ^ be made t0 Pay, but the
smaJI general farm is usually not the place to keep them;

^ P Iace ’( few Places are I) in which to indulge

m freak animals such as skunks, frogs, muskrats, ground-
hogs, foxes, ornamental fish, snakes, alligators, guinea-pigs,
squabs, songbirds, et al So when tempted to “take a flier”
m these or others, first consider the natural adaptability of
the proparty to the special kind you have in mind, s econd,
remember that no matter who declares “there’s money in it.”
even though he can prove it with reliable records, never-
theless you are justified in concluding that if you yield and
hidulge you must be prepared to pay “fool tax" until you
•gam experience You are much more likely to succeed with
the ordinary domestic animals whose milk or meat you can
surely sell than with freaks which by no stretch of the imag-
ination can be considered as “staples.”

22

POULTRY

The best way to be successful with poultry is to start with a few
hens, give them good care and comfortable quarters, and— keep both
eyes open By this I mean that one should study the matter in a
practical way by famili arising himself with the habits and require-
ments of bis fowls, and observe the effects of different kinds of food
on them

Eben E Rcxfobd,

In The Making of a Borne

N o matter how small or large your farm, you should
keep hens The outlay for good stock, equipment and
feed and the amount of time and work to manage them
properly are small in comparison with the advantages. Chief
of these are consumption of much food (for instance, kitchen
and table scraps) which, barring the friendly aid of a pig,
might be otherwise wasted, the destruction of countless in*
sects, the constant supply of eggs whose freshness cannot

POULTRY

117

be impeached, an occasional chicken dinner and the produc-
tion of appreciable quantities of highly concentrated manure.

Whether or not to keep a large enough Sock to supply
regular customers, or a road stand, is a question which
thousands of small farmers have decided affirmatively to
their profit. It must be said, however, that many failures
have resulted from attempts to conduct the business on a
commercial scale before the fundamentals have been mas-
tered and before perhaps thousands of dollars have been
spent in the hope of developing an egg farm to supply the
dty market For the majority of people the profitable limit
seems to be about 100 hens, more or less, the reason usually
being that the owner can give these his personal attention
without neglecting other features of his place; whereas
large numbers demand hired help.

Under specially favorable conditions other branches of
poultry keeping may be profitable but unless these condi-
tions are assured they will almost certainly not pay. For
instance, the presence of a lake or a river may lead you to
think that duck and goose raising would be a good venture
amply because these birds, being waterfowl, would forage
for much of their food But if you allow ducklings or goslings
to swim there while they are small you may wonder what
becomes of them until you perhaps see one pulled under
water by a snapping turtle, a pike, or an otter, or some other
voracious creature My own small flock was reduced 75%
in a mill race before I learned this fact' But I was only a
boy then l

. Commercial duck growing is a highly specialized business
m which many angle farms raise from 10,000 to 50,000
ducklings each season and place them on the market within
10 or 12 weeks of hatching The only water these ducklings
are allowed to have is what they drink. None but the breed-
ing stock is allowed to swim.

Goose growing is not similarly specialized because ap-
parently, geese cannot be so closely confined but must have
ample grass range on which to graze. Relatively small flocks
are kept on pasture with no access to lake or river until the

fmlu 88 T- at half _p own > though they may have a

small pond in which to swim,

118

FIVE ACRES

Turkeys, unless reared by modem methods, are the most
disappointing perhaps of all poultry to raise because the
poults are delicate until after they have passed a stage of
development called “shooting the red ” The turkey hen is
the worst fool of a mother imaginable Unless she is confined
in the morning and during rainy weather she will lead her
brood through wet grass with the results that they get dulled
and so weakened that many, if not all of them die Then,
too, the young turks are subject to diseases which are highly
fatal So turkey raising, though profitable to the specialist
and the raisers of large flocks under modem methods, is a
branch of poultry raising advisable for the small farmer to
avoid

Guinea fowls are the least tamable and most independent
of all poultry Once their wings are devdoped they will fly
over anything — a barn, for instance i They largdy take care
of themselves and their young, are wonderful foragers, alert
“watch dogs” giving alarm on the slightest suggestion of
danger, and the young ones are delicious when they come to
the table Guineas are therefore in good demand at rdativdy
high prices, but they must have free range, must be educated
to feed at headquarters and to roost where they will be sate

from prowlers » . . . .

Pigeons raised for squabs are also profitable when weu
managed but are often a nuisance because of the mess tbqr
make on roofs and walks Like all other dasses of p^gj
except bens, they are for the specialist to keep-if the object
is profit For supplying the home table, howevera fewpaire
in a properly made cote should produce enough squabs to
add a pleasing variety to the family menu

Before you decide to raise poultry of any Jund be sure
you understand the importance of having stock bred to _meet
the purpose for which you plan to keep it If all Y® ^
is pretty fowls to stroll across the lawn choose amongflu
many beautiful, ornamental fowls of large or ba
The? wS play their roles well without overburdening you
wit/ eggs or their carcasses If you want ahundanceofeg
S mongrels and poorly tad fowk as i you wo«M I OJ
Dlaeue as they will “eat their heads off” without yuuwgg
PStatd anything, if yon want poultry <•*

POULTRY

119

choose Brahmas, Jersey Giants, Langshams, Cochins or
some other “meat breed”; if you want eggs regardless of
meat, choose among the Mediterranean breeds — Leghorns,
Spanish, Mmorcas, Anconas, Andalusians; and if you want
both meat and eggs pick among the English, American and
Australian breeds — Rhode Island Reds, Plymouth Rocks,
Orpingtons, Wyandottes and others
Hatching chicks by hens, though still practised on many
farms, is so inconvenient and the results are so unsatisfac-
tory, especially from loss of chicks, that artificial hatching
has largely replaced it, but small, lamp incubators, which
were highly popular between 1890 and 1915, and still used,
are being rapidly replaced by custom hatcheries which, in
the aggregate, produce millions of “day-old chicks” and
ship them successfully and satisfactorily by expr pgg, air-
plane and parcel post for hundreds of miles
As a man who has raised chicks and ducklings with hens,
owned and operated a lamp incubator and a home-made
brooder and who has also reared day-old chicks, let me as-
sure you that the hen method has nothing to commend it,
that the lamp incubator is satisfactory if you intend to raise
several broods in a seasdn from your own hens’ eggs, but
that neither of these methods of hatching is as satisfactory
as the day-old chick method.

The outstanding advantages of this method are great sav-
ing of time and labor over both the other methods, replacing
mongrel and other inferior stock with pure bred and bred-
to-lay strains, the practicability of hatching pullets early
enough in spring to start laying in early fall so as to com-
mand high egg prices, to say nothing of the avoidance of
investing money m equipment of adequate size to me et
such requirements.

Artifidal brooding avoids many of the disadvantages of
natural brooding, especially fatalities due to lice, exposure
“d the time, labor and annoyance
t0 ,^ en brooding. By means of stove brooders in
hou ! es *t is as easy to manage flocks of
30) chicks (the maximum satisfactory number) as a smaU
fraction of this number with hens, and to be surer of <£d-
oping more uniform pullets

120

FIVE ACHES

Improved methods of feeding, largely the results of ex-
perimental work, have made poultry production both more
efficient and more economical Especially have these methods
affected chick development and egg production, both of
which have been enhanced and made more successful. Egg
production has also been profitably increased by using
dectric light to lengthen the hens’ “working day” to 12 or
14 hours between die equinoxes of September and March,
through encouraging the fowls to consume larger quantities
of food

Opportunities to make egg production profitable, whether
the eggs are sold m the open market, through local stores,
roadside stands, or to personal customers, indude selling
eggs according to grade as to size, weight, shape, deanhness,
absence of blood spots, infertility, and freshness The qual-
ity of the product may be maintained by sanitation, deanli-
nreg of the poultry houses, runs and nests, gathering the
crop at least twice a day in autumn, winter and spring, four
times during warm weather, keeping them cool and away
from direct sunlight to avoid deterioration, discarding ail
males except for breeding purposes so as to prevent fertm-
zation and consequent rapid deterioration, and marketing
at least twice weekly— preferably oftener

On general farms the poultry flock is usually the most
neglected, even abused, feature. In spnng chicks are hatred

_ - • i i a L«n«nr 1/iccAc tTimilcrTl nflrSSlfcGS*

uapnazara uy news auu --- — - — « * « .

disease, acddent, and destruction by hawks, weasds, owk,
foxes, hogs and other enemies During summer the ^
roams at will, picks up most of its food-msects worms,
waste grain and weed seeds In winter, being badly housed,
Sd aS wef?e duce its number and its product , on of g
Under such mismanagement eggs are plenty B

prices are low and scarce when they are high ^

little or no money in such farm jP oul 5 ^ of capital

farming is capable of making such quick Pirn J1J g

or such high profits, as may be seen from the
paragraph, the data in which are culled which

Bulled 83 of the Wisconsin w£

investigated costs and practises of poultry raising

consin farms

POULTRY

121

Only 8 of the 22 farm flocks investigated produced more
than 48 eggs a year per hen. The average cost in these cases
was 25 4$ a dozen Eight other flocks, whose hens ranged
from 24 to 48 eggs did so at a cost of 32.40 a dozen; and the
remaining 6 flocks laid less than 24 eggs a hen at an average
cost of 991 a dozen! When the value of the meat is credited
to these various Socks the costs of eggs are reduced. In one
case, where credit for the meat sold and used on the farm
was not given credit the cost of eggs was 16.30 a dozen, but
when credit was given it was reduced to 3.20 a dozen. On
another farm where egg cost was 19.1 0 the net cost was
4.80 less than nothing (1) when meat sold and used was
credited.

The data further indicate that the most liberally fed
flocks produced most eggs. Seven flocks received only 400
worth of feed a head a year and produced about 36 eggs a
hen, whereas 7 others which received 700 worth of feed av-
eraged 54 eggs a head. Feed, however, is not solely respon-
sible for such gams, credit is also due to better care.

In Massachusetts, studies showed that “each aHriitirmsfl
dozen eggs per bird increased the labor income by 350 .. .
$1. more per bird was made with flocks averaging 154 eggs
than with flocks laying 120 eggs; also average egg produc-
tion per bird was the most important factor inflnpnHrm
profit per bird.” °

®ji° hocks which laid 180 or more eggs a bird a year cost
?2.51 a bird more than flocks which laid less iVp ioo eg gs
a bird a year; but the high-produdng group returned $4.83
ca ?* 1 rece }P ts than the lowest-producing group.
i r?SH onua statical studies “indicated an increase of
153% m net profits between two groups of layers, one pro-
ducing 122 eggs [per hen] per annum and the other 163
Such an increase is much greater in proportion than the
2** “ avera S e of eggs produced per hem

other words, as production increases income over feed cost
uses more rapidly.” cost

Among the various factors that influence return* f™,
jjjjjjjfp’ ^ fe ? r j, ces , °* Jee< * ^ poultry products (eggs and
fiSL S wi? f fl0Ck ’ Productiveness of the fowls anddfvii-
fication. Where general purpose fowls are kept the pro^r-

122

FIVE ACRES

tion of income is usually about 40% for meat and 60% for
eggs, but where egg production (especially by White Leg-
horn fowls) is the main aim the figures may range from
70% to 90% for eggs

Egg production may be increased by systematic breeding,
careful culling and correct feeding. For instance, at the New
York State College of Agriculture, White Leghorns of a
highly prolific strain averaged about 180 eggs a year whereas
those of a “low” strain averaged 120 In a 5-year test the
value of eggs m the former case was 60% higher than in the
latter and yielded approximately $2 a hen more above feed
costs, even though the cost of feeding the former was slightly
greater than that of the latter

One characteristic of poor production seems to be lateness
of maturity; that is, fowls that require relatively long
timi> to mature are usually inferior as layers to those that
mature most rapidly Experiments conducted by the Depart-
ment of Agriculture discovered that Leghorn pullets of
quick maturing strains had records of 224 eggs for those
that started laying in September, 226 for those that began
in October, whereas those that started in January laid only
86 eggs Rhode Island Reds that started m October and
November respectively averaged 212 and 209 eggs, whereas

those that began m January laid only 161

The quick maturing Reds made a profit of about ?2 28 a
fowl more than did the slow ones This was due to bg
the number and the higher pnce of eggs, for 22% -of tM
eggs were laid between October and December mduaw
when prices were highest Feed cost for to twfrMjJgJ
pullets was only about 18^ a fowl more than

m A?the most feasible way to increase profits is by mcrragi
production the improvement of ^ fecundity 1S a ig 0

but the season of the year (September toj ry)
highly important In developing flocks with tonau
nothing must be left to chance In the former ^trap-

nesting the year around and w^^fhatdung and steady
scendants, in the latter, earliness .cSJrt&agK n ^ e five
development of sturdiness, are succ« »s reqi * been
essential factors in breeding toward these en

124

FIVE ACRES

chicks are ordinarily raised. By thus maintaining sanitary
conditions they have not only had healthier docks but in-
creased the egg-yield in at least one cooperative group of
flocks by an average of 40 eggs to the pullet
There is no reason why you may not benefit by applying
the same types of care that these campaigns have adopted,
namely, dean chicks, dean incubators, dean brooders,
dean ground, clean litter, dean feed, dean hoppers, dean
water, dean management, dean laying houses— m two words
cleanliness throughout. Let your slogan be “Health sticks
to dean chicks,” for it is true
Though costs and receipts necessarily vary with locality
instances may prove hdpful and suggestive of what may
be expected, especially when they represent averages of
co n sider able numbers of farms and fowls For this reason

the following figures are presented
The Arizona Experiment Station reported (Bulletin 145)
the average receipts and expenses of egg production on 44
farms as follows. Total expenses, 100%, feed, 412%;
labor, 22 5%, replacements, 14 3%, inventory depreciation,
8.2%; interest, 4 7%, auto, 2 5%, upkeep of buildings,
1 9% , taxes, 0 3%, lighting, 0 3 %; miscellaneous, 41%
Total receipts, 100%, eggs, 907%, hens soM, 63%,
flock appreciation, 2 3%, miscellaneous, 0 7% The cost
of eggs per dozen Average, 25 1%, 161 01 “...f 1
19 3%, from 141 to 160, 23 6%, from 121 to 140, 26 9%,
from 101 to 120, 26 8%; 100 or less, 52 4%

In Oregon, 441 flocks totaling 271,337 hens prodded
3,864,162^ dozen eggs m a three-years’ test, averaged 6i5
hens to the flock and produced an average of m egP 1
hen The averages of costs aaid receipts are as fdlow^
Operator’s labor, 14 6%, unpaidfamdy ^,33%,
labor, 0 7%, total man labor, 18 6%; ; total tad, 54 2%,
miscellaneous, 18.5%, depreciation, 3 8%, ' t

gross cost, 100% Receipts other than eggs, 16 7%, n
cost (three-year average) 83 3% . . nr ; r « 0 f

125

BEES

prices paid in personal customer trade; they show that market
receipts and yidds are greatest during April and May and
least during November and December. They also show that
market prices are lowest from April to June and highest from
November to December. Thus they hdp support the state-
ment tha t every producer should aim to have his greatest egg
production between September and February because
p ri c es always average higher during that half of the year
than during the other half. The figures show egg recdpts and
prices for a ten-year average in the five principal markets —
Boston, New York, Philaddphia, Chicago and San Francisco.

23

BEES

Few persons think of bee-keeping as a business The ordinary con-
ception is that of a diversion, a side line on the farm, or a harmless
pursuit for old men Perhaps ninety percent of those keeping bees may
be included m one of these classes, of which a very large number
come under the head of keeping bees as a diversion

Frank C Pellett,

In Producttve Bee-Keeping

I n my estimation, no branch of agriculture is of such ab-
sorbing interest as bee-keeping Having kept bees of my
own I know something of the marvdous origin and coopera-
tion of the colony not only in gathering nectar and in manu-
facturing honey but in making “bee-bread” from pollen,
beeswax from honey, “propolis” or “bee-glue” from the
waxy exuditions of flower buds, and of the “royal jelly” on
which the developing queens are fed. I also know something
of the profit that usually accompanies good management and
the loss that surely follows carelessness and neglect
The highly satisfactory experience of sitting in the shad e
on a hot summer day and watching throngs of workers flying
between the hives and the basswood trees or the white, crim-
son, alsike or sweet white dover (or melilot) fields during a
'honey flow” and realizing that soon there will be another

128

FIVE ACRES

profitably in other directions, provided the other lines do not
exact work at “peak times” of bee activity — brief summer
periods To handle the work properly as much work as
possible (e g, hive, frame and section assembling, founda-
tion making and placing) should be done during the previous
winter so only the actual, necessary handling oi the bees
may be left for summer

Cooperative work with the United States Department
of Agriculture in Wyoming with bee-keepers and more
than 25,000 colonies showed that the total cost of handling
the bees ranged from $2 04 to $12 50 a colony! At 500 an
hour the highest labor cost was $447, the lowest, $109.
Average net incomes were $4.65 a colony This figure in-
cluded labor of operator at 50^ an hour, interest on the
investment at 6 % and average prices of a pound for
honey and 27*5 for beeswax Hour-returns for labor and
management ranged from $1 61 to $11 78. The net income
ranged from a loss (four out of 39 bee-keepers) up to a
profit of $16. a colony Costs for extracted honey were
as low as 5 4*5 a colony but averaged 7*! a pound for
apiaries smaller than 400 colonies Good yields are usually
characterized by low costs and vice versa

24

greenhouses

[A n. ennml ,»t **-> <

of means to commence upon a small scale aeunst a

lean-to house the cheapest to erect-provided he 1 tadt * ‘
south wall of a building— the excess of cost for a span-root w
would be so slight, and the results obtained so much be de .

feetlong LeviR Taft,

In Greenhouse Construction

129

GREENHOUSES

O ne of the most striking developments of gardening in
recent years is that of the small greenhouse. So great
has been the demand that leading greenhouse construction
companies have developed standard sizes, sectional parts
and unit features, the materials for which they can ship
without delay.

Gardeners benefit in many ways through this standardiza-
tion For instance, the cost of construction is wonderfully
reduced, 1, through the mere standardization itself and
Ihe consequent reduced cost of making the parts, 2, through
the manufacturers’ purchases of raw materials in large
quantities and favorable sizes thus eliminating or greatly
reducing waste; 3, through the construction of such parts
by less skilled labor than that required to make special
sizes; 4, by the making of these parts during slack seasons,
thus eliminating over-time high rates; 5, by making it
possible for a purchaser to put the parts together with
unskilled labor when he thinks that thereby he may save
money.

On this last point, however, the saving is often more
speculative or fancied than real, mainly because akfflad
men know exactly what to do first, next and last, thus mak-
ing up the difference in the cost of their time by requiring
less time than unskilled men to do the same work. More-
over, they are sure to do the work correctly and thus give

tta ** than mdi be tie See

** most important advantages of buying certain

assemble, of far better material a ^? t , by 25 > re a<fy to

■*« ° f £2

130

FIVE ACRES

the certainty that it would be adequately warmed and
ventilated and that should he wish to enlarge he can do so
conveniently, economically and harmoniously
Favorite widths for even-span greenhouses have not be-
come such empirically or through accident, but through the
experience of men who do greenhouse work These widths
have been decided upon because of three factors— the “reach”
of the men who work with the plants, the widths of the
benches and the necessary walks between benches or beds
Where plants are grown in flower pots placed on the benches
men less than 5%' tall find side bench widths 30" wide or
wider and center bench widths S' tiring because of the reach
from front to back or to center, respectively Where plants
are grown in “solid beds” instead of flower pots and where
tall men are employed the side benches are sometimes as
much as 3' wide and the centers 6'; but even under these
conditions such widths are not nearly as popular as the ones
first mentioned In commercial greenhouses walks are some-

times less than 2' wide. .

By using bench and walk widths as a basis of measure-
ment the greenhouse construction companies have decided
upon standard widths Among the favorites are IS , 18 and
25'. Within reasonable limits the length °f, an yJ^ ouse
be as many units as desired, but not less than two, preier
able three or more for the sake of conv^enceofoperation
and arrangement To illustrate-
would consist of two sections, each 12% long, a 5(r on
four such sections or two sections of 25 eacn

Though the sectional idea and standard widta insure
excellent advantages the greenhouse constiucton compamffi
have not stopped here Their experience has proved*
thousands of cases beginners have started gnl j

greenhouse, gained experience during a y now

then added other sections, often of a ^different type ^
whole series of units are available for co . pahnT)S

not only easily operated parts butlmrm managed

of units attractive to the eye as well as being V av oid
Such being the case the beginner may not_ omy « t

making countless mistakes ^ “ ns ^X s S t ^mReen-
he may make harmonious additions to bis tost smau s

GREENHOUSES

131

house he can at the start deliberately plan for a complete
lay-out properly adapted to the entire available area at
his disposal and toward which he may work, unit by unit,
with the knowledge that as each is added the outfit will be
both pleasing to look at and well adapted to its various uses.

Though greenhouses are made in many “fancy” designs
and though they vary considerably as to dimensions, by far
the most popular forms are the even-span greenhouse and
the lean-to conservatory The main reasons for this pop-
ularity are lower cost, adaptability both to plant growth
and to adjacent architecture and convenience of arrange-
ment.

The even-span, as its name implies, is a greenhouse which,
if cut from apex to ground and from end to end would
present a right and a left half Such houses may stand alone,
be connected with a head-house, a garage, a residence
or another greenhouse usually at the north end Houses of
this form are usually and preferably placed with their e nd s
respectively north and south so the sun will give as much
light to one side as to the other as the day advances Under
such conditions plants, theoretically, develop more evenly
than if they receive light from only one side as in the case
of the lean-to conservatory. This advantage is perhaps more
fancied than real because plants properly managed do well
in all styles of correctly built greenhouses
The lean-to greenhouse, “just a lengthwise half” of an
even-span house, is usually built against an already prating
wall, either of a residence, a garage, another greenhouse or
some other building It may be and usually is much narrower
than an even-span house, often less than 10'. Whenever
possible it should face south A northern exposure does not
favor plant growth, though for propagation purposes it is

from cutting ^ P6 ° Ple who S row . lar 8 e quantities of plants

i«J^* tJl ^ ertain s^Pti 01 ^ such as special propagation and
tem-to hoiaes, the standard even-span greenhouses IS' or
18 wide will prove a better investment than any narrower
Isbecaus ® narrower sizes (which are also lower in
eight) cost more instead of less proportionately to build
and are harder to operate during changeable weather be-

132

FIVE ACRES

cause of the relatively small volume of air they contain
1 he air is affected by outdoor temperature and the flue-
tuations of intermittent sunshine and clouds, to say nothing of
wind For the same reasons the 25' house is still more eco-
nomical, relatively, to construct and convenient to operate.

mm

lEJSfl-J

tmm*

fj PLANT BENCH gj

J

V

| PLANT BENCH j|

s

l» : W

i PLANT BENCH

C

!■ r if T III ii 1 i

1

I'-tari

li

;EEaSE3SEa3lii

Fig 34 Cross section and two floor plans of
even-span display greenhouse

It has a far larger available proportionate growing area
than has the greenhouse of any smaller width and its in-
creased height not only makes it easier to manage during
variations of outdoor temperatures and air movements
permits the growing of much taller plants ,

A superficial comparison of these sizes shows that wnereas

GREENHOUSES

133

a standard greenhouse 18' x SO' feet contains 900 square
feet of ground area, one 25' x 40' has 1,000 square feet —
100 square feet more — yet the latter has advantages as well
as appearance which make it more attractive to own, whether
or not the whole length be built at one time or at different
tunes It is the more adaptable size These statements gain
support from the fact that the greenhouse companies report
the steadily increasing popularity of the 25' house as com-
pared with the 18' size

One of the most striking and significant advantages of own-
ing a greenhouse built by a construction company, espe-
cially one of standard size, is that the company stakes its
reputation upon the materials it supplies and the skill of
the men it sends to do the erection. The materials are what
many years of experience have proved best, each for its
purpose Most important, perhaps, of all is the selection of
cypress for the wooden parts This wood withstands decay
even under the exceptionally trying conditions of Hampngcc
and heat characteristic of greenhouses It also retains it
shape astoundmgly well Such wood is rarely carried in
suitable sizes or properly seasoned by local lumber com-
panies so the man who wants to build his greenhouse of local
materials is only too often tempted to substitute some far
less desirable wood The result is that sooner or later the
greenhouse roof will warp, leak, break glass and decay.

Another advantage of standard greenhouses is that guess-
work is eliminated This has special application to the heat-
ing Each construction company has worked out the heating
requirements of each of its standard size houses for each
general temperature required by the plant species to be
grown It supplies a heater not merely capable of warming
the house under ordinary winter conditions but under severe
tests such as blizzards during zero weather. This fact is of
special comfort to the owner who has valuable plants or a
crop to keep growing vigorously.

. Adequate ventilation is scarcely less important than heat-
ing, for without it the plants may be “cooked,” even when the
weather outside is bd&w freezing.- Unless the ventilating
system is properly proportioned to the area of the roof and
the volume of the house it may be inadequate to keep the

136

FIVE ACRES

little about operation principles and details to be of much
help to the owner of any specific greenhouse They are
good to have and to study but far more information than
they give is needed by the would-be or the actual owner
At best greenhouse literature is meagre The recently
published books which have come under my notice have
been disappointing in various ways So far as I have been
able to discover there are no recent or available govern-
ment or experiment station bulletins on this subject, though
Farmers’ Bulletin 1318 of the Department of Agriculture is
well worth having Two of the standard books, Greenhouse
Construction and Greenhouse Management by Professor
L. R. Taft, have long been out of print Though written
in the late nineties they are well worth picking up at second-
hand book stores Greenhouses, Their Construction and
Equipment by Professor W. J Wright emphasizes con-
ditions at the time of its publication and is still available
It also is well worth its price.

25

COLDFRAMES AND HOTBEDS

As the name implies, coldfnunes are sash-covered frames mthrat
heat The application of heat at once transforms them into hotbeds
While coldframes can hardly be accorded the dignity of fo *F m S*j™''
tuxes, yet they play an important part in the protection of plants m
autumn and spring, as well as during the winter^ c

In Garden Fanning

I

N no one direction has interest in gardenmg been ^

1 characterized as in the increasing numbers of cddframe
and hotbeds employed by amateurs as well as
men Under modern construction, these_ adjun
striking advantages among which the following are

™By S^'of hotbeds (Ftg M> f SS’iSS
and vegetable varieties may be started weeks or even months

137

COLDFRAMES AND HOTBEDS

before they could be sown outdoors Instead of relying upon
other sources for supplies of seedlings or potted plants,
one’s own seed may be started in the hotbed, pncked-out in
coldframes, inured to the weather (“hardened off”) and when
outdoor conditions are favorable, transplanted to the garden.

By starting hardy perennials and biennials several weeks
before outdoor sowing would be safe the plants may often be

Fig 36 Plants for hotted frame A, B, C, D, 13' long, 2" thick, A. 6"
wide, others, 12“ wide, AB, rear trail, C, front, DD and EE, ends to be
naued together with cleats to make dope from rear to front Saw D and E

(SccFig^T 1 ) 05 Bolt ^ ““k t0 ^ of 2"x4" scantling

made to bloom during the first season instead of having to
wait until the second year Similarly cuttings of many peren-
nials, roses, and other flowering subjects may be started in a
hotibed and advanced by the same stages to the open ground.

The coldframe alone may likewise be used for slower-
rooting varieties One great advantage of this practise is that
you may propagate a personal stock of favorite plants and
thus be sure that the young ones are true to name

138

FIVE ACRES

With a hotbed or a coldframe the difficulties and disap-
pointments often incident to starting minute seeded plants
may be wholly avoided, for when a shower threatens the
beds may be protected by sash and the danger of washing out
or burying either the seeds or the seedlings in mud obviated
Risks of starting tender subjects too early or too late out-
doors may be avoided When seed of such varieties is sown
toe early in die open the weather may be so cold and wet it
may decay or the seedlings be nipped by a tardy spring frost,
when too late, the plants may meet unfavorable summer con-

Elg 37 Hotbed fame ready to assemble with coiner posts and bolts

ditions, develop poorly and perhaps be destroyed by an
autumn frost before they have reached desired development
This is of special application to growing cantaloupes, cucum-
bers and watermelons, though it also ^eludes other tender
plants such as tomato, eggplant, pepper, dahlia, canna

g ™Wties where blight destroys watermelon, canta-
loupes and cucumbers, hotbeds and coldframes a k o
the gardener to avoid this disease or to ward off its effects ™
after the fruits have been ripened; for by starting toe plants
on inverted sods, in flower pots or other conwjrg
des to favor transplanting they may be kept m i the frames
and readily sprayed, dusted or fumigated to , ^

beetles and s?u4 bugs which not only feed on them but
spread blight infection from plant to plant ■

Even when not growing- plants, coldframes j( j

for extending the ripening season of that

otherwise be spoiled by an early fall fr , rature threat-
show pink may be gathered when falling temperature

COLDFRAMES AND HOTBEDS

139

ens damage, placed on deep layers of straw m the frames and
covered with sash whenever the weather is wet or cold The
rate of ripening may be accelerated to a week or so by keep-
ing the sash on the frames during the day, thus raising the
temperature; or it may be delayed by leaving them off when-
ever the weather will permit without risk of frost-bite Thus
the tomato season may be extended to Thanksgiving Day or
even later The frames may also be used to store such late
vegetables as celery, endive, cauliflower, Brussels sprouts
and witloof chicory (so-called “French endive”) and for
carrying semi-hardy plants such as chrysanthemums over
winter

In spite of such an array of advantages, many people hesi-
tate to have either a hotbed or a coldframe for fear their lnrTr
of experience or their conditions may induce failure If you
are one of these cast your fears aside, for m spite of both in-
experience and lack of ideal conditions thousands of other
novices have plunged and succeeded beyond their most san-
guine hopes Of course, the nearer you can approach ideal
conditions the more likely are you to succeed These are a
southern exposure (or next best a southeastern) and protec-
tion from high winds, especially from the north and the west,
by a windbreak such as woods, tall hedges, or buildings

Modern, standard, commercial (3'x6') sash and (6'x
12') hotbed frames (Fig. 38) are made so accurately and of
such desirable materials (cypress or redwood), are so easy to
duplicate and cost so little that they should always be pre-
ferred to home-made ones The 6'x 12' frame is especially
desirable to start with because it is more convenient to oper-
ate (having a larger volume of air) than a smaller one If de-
sired it may be divided by a partition across the middle so
half may be used as a coldframe and the other as a hotbed.
Being assembled by bolts and angle irons it may be readily
taken apart and stored flat or on end in small space or moved
from one property to another, thus appealing to renters
While Knocked down” it may be easily cleaned and painted
and thus made to last for many years

For a coldframe no excavation is usually made, for a hot-
bed the area to be excavated should be at least 6" w ider and
longer than the frame so there may be plenty of space for the

140

FIVE ACRES

foundation This may be made of stone, brick, concrete or
2" planks, preferably of “pecky” cypress, when such are
available; otherwise clear cypress or some other wood that
resists decay — locust, cedar, chestnut The foundation should
extend a few inches above the surface to increase the longevity
of the frame itself A post is at each comer and at 4' intervals
on the sides of all wooden foundation frames.

The depth of excavation will depend upon the climate, it
varies with the local frost line From Maine to Minnesota

and northward 24" to 30" is J favored; in soul thrastem Nc J
York, 18" to 24"; near Washington, 12 In theSouth
frame usually rests directly on the ground without excava

tion or foundation frame. „ . nr ,f er _

Though all commercial sash are 3 x 6 , iBere b a e i pref

ences and objections to various types.

weight styles because easier .to Randle s than hem?

others, the reverse because the frame, bei g '

141

COLDFRAMES AND HOTBEDS

the former claiming protection equivalent to straw mats
placed upon single glass sash, thus avoiding the work of lay-
ing and removing the mats (real work when wet or icy) , giv-
ing the plants full sunlight and therefore better growing con-
ditions Sian under single glass sash.

Opponents object to the greater weight of double glass sash,
the 25 fo to 30% extra cost, the retention of moisture be-
tween the upper and the lower glass and consequently the
encouragement of decay They also declare that the ac-
cumulation of dirt between the panes results m shade and
poorer growth of plants, and that all the advantages of
double glass may be gamed without any of the disadvan-
tages by placing a second single glass sash on top of the
first during cold weather. In any case it is advisable m north-
ern localities to have protective mats (straw, burlap, felt or
other material) and often matched board shutters to place
over the sash when the weather is inclement, especially when
windy

The only difference between a coldframe and a hotbed is
that heat in the former all comes from the sun Hotbeds may
be heated m several different ways Fermenting material,
especially fresh horse manure, though formerly popular is
objectionable because of its present day scarcity, high cost,
labor to prepare, short period of usefulness, fumes of fei-
mentation (especially of ammonia), and the excess of at-
tention as to ventilation that beds so heated require It is in
ferior to all other means of heating hotbeds

During the past few years electricity as a source of heat
has been gaining rapidly in popularity because of its advan-
tages over all other methods Where electric current is avail-
able only an “outlet” is needed — such as used for the

toaster As proved by experiment stations (especially New
York, Oregon, Minnesota, and Missouri), by various or-
ganizations as well as by electrical apparatus manufacturers
(whose bulletins and advertising matter are available at lit-
tle or no cost) the electric hotbed is free from all the objec-
tions to fermenting materials and is superior to steam and hot
water. Among advantages thus determined the following are
outstanding

Electricity costs less to operate than do steam and hot water

142 FIVE ACRES

(approximately 50 kilowatt-hours to the sash during the
growing season ) It has probably longer life than either. When
properly installed with thermostatic control it is safe and easy
to operate, produces uniform heat at any desired tempera-
ture, demands a minimum of attention and eliminates the
difficulty and work of preparing manure
For temporary (especially rented properties) its con-
venience, adaptability, and portability make special appeal
A coldframe may be converted into a hotbed or vice versa
by merely turning a switch on or off This saves time m start-
ing seedlings because, regardless of weather conditions seeds
ma y be sown later, seedlings grown faster and, thanks to the
thermostat, sturdier plants may be produced than by any
other system applicable to frames
Electricity is clean and agreeable to work with and is ar
ways ready to use As it may be turned on immediately after
installation it saves loss of time incident to the use of manure
whose heat must always be allowed to subside to less than
90° F before seeds may be sown with safety It is an econom-
ical substitute for manure when the cost of hauling and ban-

dU A 8 hotbS C 6'?i2'may be permanently electrified for about
$5 ; a manure bed must be made and the manure paid fw
fresh every year Whereas an electrified bed may be heated
ev«y daym the year, one can be wanned by
only 5 to 8 weeks. When current is shut offahotbcdbccom^
a coldframe, so no extra coldframes are needed for hardening
off plants Thus the work of shifting plante fawjjtog
other may be avoided Coldframes may be kept from freezing
by hanging electric cables around the insid

^Ctody^ntaSl TdSScal heating system by attach-

“Sew” *> tag* -

Fimire 39 and oIucEing to an outlet connected twin

SS££ Italian total ■£- flSSfl

tSASZEZ SSL — *•

spring.

143

COLDFRAMES AND HOTBEDS

Without going into detail it may be said that one amateur
;rew about 5,000 plants of 50 flower and vegetable varieties
,t an operating cost of only $1 60 for current (the rate be
ag 10% £ a kilowatt hour) The bed was equipped with
rires, eight 25-watt vacuum bulbs and a thermostat for only
i5 and half a day’s time to install. The thermostat, set to
iperate at 50° F., maintained a temperature within "safe
imits during sub-freezing weather," part of the time 16° F.
hove zero

Hotbed heating by electricity is also done through thermal
:ables, either strung around the walls, laid near, upon or be-
leath the soil surface, or as plates placed beneath separate
lats Though styles of apparatus and application vary widely
and are annually being improved, all are more satisfactory
than manure, steam and hot water methods. Electricity has
also proved advantageous for heating propagation benches
and for forcing such vegetables as lettuce, tomatoes and
cucumbers In short, its convenience, economy, cl eanliness
and automatic control are what so strongly appeal to gar-
deners both amateur and professional, and account for its
rapidly increasing popularity.

Various methods of applying the heat have been tried in
several states but, so far as I know, not more than two had
been compared until T. M Currence conducted experiments
with the four types illustrated in Figure 39 and detailed his
findings in Bulletin 239 of the Minnesota Experiment Sta-
tion Among his conclusions the following have special signifi-
cance to the man who wants to use electricity for heating his
hotbeds or converting his coldframes into hotbeds They are
also of particular value because of the rigorous climate of
the locality in which the work was done This is far stronger
Proof that electricity is safe to install where cold weather is
the rule than if the tests had been made farther south where
the winters and springs are less severe.

For these experiments the hotbeds were built of 1 " p in*
boards entirely above ground on a southern exposure and
upon gravelly sod, they were lined with insula ting ma terial
covered with waterproofing compound, the outside with
roofing paper; m cold weather they were protected by U"
lelt mats All were equipped with meters and thermostats to

144 FIVE ACRES

measure the current and regulate the temperature, respec-
tively.

Frame A was heated and lighted by four 100-watt Mazda
lamps attached to a %" pipe crosspiece about 12" above the
soil, each lamp had a 6" shallow cone reflector. In Frame B,
120' of hotbed cable was placed in the soil to deliver 200
watts of heat and had 4 50-watt Mazda lamps suspended as
in Frame A In Frame C, 60' of cable was placed 6" below the
soil surface to deliver about 400 watts of heat, and a sup-
plementary 60' as a precaution to produce additional heat
when necessary — though the occasion did not arise In Frame
D, 60' of cable was hung on the inside walls

Efforts were made to adjust the thermostats so they would
operate in a range of SO to 55° F. but sunshine and the dif-
ficulty of making them operate at the same temperature
p^hspH — not serious — variations of the heat During four
weeks of winter weather the differences in current cost were

not great

The largest crops were grown in Frame A, doubtless be-
cause of the stimulating effect of the light. The temperature
in that frame averaged more than 3° lower than m any of the
others Once when the temperature fell to 15° below zero the
lowest temperature in any of the frames was 38® above zero.
This indicates that when reasonable care is exercised in i frame
construction and the use of mat protectors, each method of
applying current will protect plants from freezing Frame -U,
with coil above ground, used least current in the nmter test
and produced better plants than did Frame C Frame A pro-
duced somewhat uneven, rank giorti.
probably be prevented by better *stabuti<m of the hghl te
Combination of bottom and overhead ^ cosfly
operate but the plants made good fwtliMuJdfalty*

found in regulating moisture in Frame C Wh weather
in this frame was reduced to a minimum m cold i veatter,
moisture condensed on the glass and ten ded to «l>j t
surface wet, and when properly ventilated thesoddneaom
rapidly, baked and current was fasted Perhaps unfavora ^
moisture conditions accounted for poor growth o p

has advantages and disadvantages tor com-

146

FIVE ACRES

mercial use Apparently bottom heat should be least costly
for seed germination, lights most desirable for rapid growth,
especially in cloudy weather, combination of these two will
supply widest range of adaptability, possibly best results
might be obtained by using bottom heat to germinate seeds,
and lights after the seedlings appear, 25-watt lamps, 4 to a
sash, give good distribution of light and tend to eliminate un-
even growth

Lights would be desirable for beds smaller than 6 ' x 6 ' To
reduce the watts of heat necessitates lengthening the heating
cable Heating capacity of 200 watts would require 120'
of cable, a length cumbersome to install in small area

Commercial trials in Minnesota summarized in the same
bulletin, supplement the findings in the above experiments by
the statements that electricity makes a saving of 2 weeks over
manure heated hotbeds, current used during the first month
was 30 kilowatt-hours a sash, at 3 <5 a kilowatt-hour (the local
rate) the cost was 90jf a sash in 2 cases (the third not com-
parable) ; all 3 growers plan to increase the number of their
electric hotbeds — a sure sign that they recognize the advan-
tages of electric botbed heating.

2 6

SOILS AND THEIR CARE

A pekpect sod is one which maintains a reserve supply of insoluble
food material that cannot be washed away, which
soluble material to feed the growing crop, which is » “gfj™
it can supply sufficient water to the crop, which is capable of mam
taming the nght temperature or of wanning up quickly in
Jmhribidi has a structure that permits of proper root movement

Charles W Stoddakt,

In Chemstry of Agncitture

T f you could start your farm on a piece of land ^th wluch
I man has never interfered and from the stert wo*
as Nature does you could doubtless mi^tmii fer ty
crop production mdefimtely at a high standard The proo

147

SOILS AND THEIR CARE

ability is, however, that the ground with which you have to
deal has been so injured by man’s abuse that its ability to
grow desirable plants is at a low ebb This need not dis-
courage you because in a surprisingly short time you may
easily bring it back to its pristine condition and can even
improve on this to an astonishing degree.

Soils may be classified according to their principal com-
ponents — clay, sand and innumerable combinations of these
with vegetable matter (humus). Clay — blue, red or yellow
— though rich in various mineral dements is undesirable
without modification by the presence of the other two com-
ponents It is sticky, hard to dig or plow, so dense that
water and air penetrate it with difficulty and its surface
bakes in dry sunny weather Sand, the opposite extreme,
contains far less actual plant food material, allows water
to rush through, carrying with it and wasting soluble plant
food material added by nature or man Combinations of
these extremes with vegetable matter form “loans” of many
grades popularly known as heavy clay loam, light clay
loam, sandy loam, etc

Loams are more desirable for plant growing than are
either clay or sand because, on die one hand, they are
easier to work, more porous and less likely to bake than
clay and. on the other hand, are more retentive of moisture
and plant food than sand When your soil happens to ap-
proach the characteristics of one or the other of these ex-
tremes modify it by adding the opposite extreme to it,
that is, “lighten”, a clay by adding sand and make a sand
“hea\icr” by adding clay With each class of soil it is easier
to increase the water-holding capacity by adding vegetable
matter through applications of manure or by plowing under
green manures or co\cr crops (Chapter 29 )

Clay may also be lightened by plowing under a two-horse
load of fresh horse manure to each 2,500 square feet of
area in late fall, leaving the clods and furrows unbroken
just as turned up by the plow so frost will break them
adding a 1" layer of sifted coal ashes during winter and*
in spring, ghing a surface dressing of lime (about a pound
to 10 square feet. 250 to 300 pounds to the acre).

Texture is the principal characteristic that determines

148

S
■ ?

FIVE ACRES

the value of a soil for trucking and strawberry growing
This is mainly due to the size and the quantify of sand
particles When coarse, the soil is “quick” because it drains
rapidly, warms up quickly and permits early sowing Such
soils are warm all season long and thus favor early crop
maturity. Because of their open texture they require large
quantities of humus, lavish feeding and irrigation
Medium sandy loams are not quite so early but retain
water and plant food better and are more productive Fine
sandy loams, though later than the preceding are usually
best for summer vegetables and strawberries. For latest
crops silty and clayey loams are often most valuable of all
Their fertility is also more easily and economically main-

tained

If your money crops are to be largely vegetables and
strawberries, as they should be, you will do well to re-
member that sandy loams have the following merits Earli-
ness and warmness especially m spring, earhness of tillage
in spring and lateness in autumn, earhness of tillage after
rains, quickness of fertilizer action, economical cost of ul-
lage, ease of transplanting in them, facility of root crop
harvest, smoothness of root crops, ease of cleaning and
preparing root crops for sale, relatively less compaction of
soil during harvest, particularly when the soil is wet and
adaptability to efficient overhead irrigation

Humus is the residue of decomposed organic matto
fonncinally vegetable) contained m the soil It is of great
importance tothe fertility of soils t^eitincr^
water-absorbing and retaining power lessens soil tenaafy,
increases heat absorption of to sun’s ra£, s«za , hoMs,
and develoDS'Dlant food from the air and the minera ram
PTKS. supports 0* Me of
worms, grubs and bacteria) that live in a
SCSdf Its elements to the supply of plant food, and
all these scores aids plant nutrition 0 f

Nature supplies her soils with humus by 0 r

t£ tavi7Lnd.es end die -enure? ■*

animals of all kinds When we upset her meftods by
Nation we must supply humus in some other way o
soil will be so impoverished she cannot grow goon v

149

SOILS AND THEIR CARE

for us We can supply the loss of humus by liberal dressings
of manure, muck, peat, leaf mold or other vegetable ma-
terial or by .growing green manures. (Chapter 29.)

When leaves and other forest litter decay they become
“leaf mold,” a material highly valued by flower growers
but, as a rule, not so much by vegetable growers and
fanners The annual deposit of leaves (“needles”) and
other waste in populous pine woods is about a ton and in
hardwoods probably twice as much to the acre. Not only does
this gradually change to humus but it adds appreciable quan-
tities of plant food to the soil.

In the 1928 Department of Agriculture Year Book,
W. R Mattoon gives the analysis of a ton as including
12 1 pounds of ammonia, 2 8 of phosphoric add and 3.9 of
potash. At an average of 1 pound of “dry matter” to the
square foot, an acre (minus the area occupied by tree
trunks) would contain at least 18 tons which, at the above
figures and at prevailing prices, would be worth $39.20 for
ammonia, $2.52 for phosphoric add and $4.21 for potash,
a total of $43.93.

Mr. Mattoon also reports that a farmer who applied the
rakings of one acre of heavy oak woods to an acre of field
crop land during 3 years secured yields of com and cotton
which increased his returns by an annual average of $16.15
over a similar acre not so treated.

Though these fertilizer and return figures are impressive
they do not tell the whole story because leaf mold is noted
for its high water-holding properties. When added to soil
it acts as a sponge — absorbs rainfall, checks downward
seepage, and yields moisture during long periods to plant
roots. For these reasons, where it can be obtained at little
or no cost but. the gathering, it is valuable to use as bed-
ding or Utter in stables and poultry houses, as mulching
material for strawberries and bush fruits, as a supplemental
manure or as a source of humus in compost piles.

In a sketchy way the following paragraphs suggest how
color may help even a novice to appraise the crop-raising
value of soils.

Color has long been relied upon as an index of soil value
for crop production In a general way it proves the presence

ISO

FIVE ACRES

or absence of desirable and undesirable compounds and also
suggests the composition of, the most important sod ingre-
dient, the clay However, color, per se, is of small impor-
tance; though dark colored sods, especially black ones,
when well drained, absorb larger proportions of sun heat than
do light colored ones (Chapter 18 } Hence, dark colored,
well drained soils are earlier than light ones of otherwise
similar composition and texture

Though color differences of soils are due to differences of
components it is not true that darker colored soils contain
larger quantities of coloring matter than do light ones
Composition and combination account for many variations
Usually a black sod is rich and a dark sod productive m
ratio to its darkness but black color is due to combinations
of organic matter and lime, even m small amount (often
less than 2% of lime)

Brown color generally indicates sod acidity, due to the
presence of iron oxide In such sods the organic matter,
even though abundant, is not saturated with lime When
iron oxide is in the “free” state the sod is usually yellow
when the quantity is small or red when it is large However,
the color is not primarily dependent upon the amount of
oxide because the quantity of this material is fairly uniform
in the day of the surface sod, regardless of color Clay,
the finest divided material of sods, » formed by rocs
weathering Its composition therefore varies with the nature
of the original rocks Red and brown sods are highly
valued, less because of their iron oxide than because of
their condition which this material (and color) indicate
For it suggests good dramage and otter favorable growth
rrmdihW and proves the presence of abundant material
which will both supply and retain plant food _

White and light colored sods are deficient m unp ortan t
components — organic matter and rfey-and contam
of sand Hence to absorb and t reton

^Wtoe^ght colored spots appear in dark colored sods
they prove that the sod there was water-logged and that

SOILS AND THEIR CARE

IS1

the lime, organic matter, manganese, iron oxide and phos-
phoric acid have been leached out

M S Anderson, chief chemist of the Bureau of Chem-
istry and Soils, has so strikingly presented certain functions
of soils that I am somewhat condensing his article in the
1930 Year Book of the Department of Agriculture as
follows:

Nature hoards some of her assets in an almost miserly
manner Even plant food may be kept in such closed vaults
as to be only a long-time investment, bearing a very low
rate of interest Some of the coarser soil mineral grains may
contain large potential supplies of fertilizing elements and
yet the soil be of low fertility because of their lack of avail-
ability Apparently little can be done to release them

Another class or condition of plant food serves as a sav-
ings bank, whose deposits are subject to the “drafts” of a
crop whether for the present or the future The "colloidal
material” (finely decomposed rock fragments mmhmff j
with organic matter) appears to offer such banking fa-
cilities It make up die greater part of the clay in soils and
differs otherwise from the coarser mineral grains than in
particle size, besides its marked influence on the physical
behavior of soil, its ability to serve as a plant food deposi-
tory is most marked Yet even its presence does not insure
a rich plant food deposit Its character vanes widely, being
the resultant of parent rock material, climate and vegeta-
tion In the mam, though sometimes badly impoverished by
Nature, it is the soil’s most valuable asset Moreover, it is
the plant food asset over which the grower has the greatest
control Little can be done significantly to alter the quantity
of colloid in the soil, but much can be done to or

improve its quality

A bank deposit can not be indefinitely drawn upon with-
out making deposits to the credit of die account Colloid
material is the agency through which such credit may be
effectively restored to the soil This is possible because of
the great holding power of the soil colloids for mineral
constituents .apparently both mineral and organic portions
of the colloid When plant foods are added as fertilizers
only part of the water-soluble material added may be taken

152

FIVE ACRES

up immediately by the crop The rest may be held by the
colloids in such a way that loss by drainage is slight Thus
the crop of a later season may share in the benefits, and
the balance not used may accrue to the credit of plant food
Not all plant food of soil colloids is “subject to check”
by growing plants; some is “on time deposit,” so additional
requirements must be met before it is available for use
Organic matter often serves in this capacity In addition
to serving other beneficial purposes, it is a source of readily
available plant food. Recent investigations have emphasized
the availability of its plant-food constituents and its rela-
tively high capacity for retaming plant food as compared
with the mineral portion of the colloids of less fertile soils
Regardless of the kind of mineral colloid each load of
manure added and each crop residue turned under becomes
a “credit slip” to the plant-food account

If a soil has a very low colloid content, as in the case of
very sandy soils, banking facilities are not at hand, and
valuable plant food may be lost Even organic matter may
be rapidly decomposed and much of its value washed away
Nitrates especially are leached out in the drainage water
Under such conditions plants must be fed in a hand-to-
mouth manner without the expectancy of building a bank

account for the future ,

It is extremely difficult under certain conditions to build
up the fertility of sandy soils, or even of some sods of finer
texture containing certain kinds of colloidal material, b
yond the necessities of a single season Such soils for P '
able use require frequent additions of quickly avadable
plant food Any attempt to treat them as store hous® of
plant food as in the case of most medium and heavy soils

is likely to mean plant food wasted nmhablv

The loss of soil fertility due to sheet er^on is P r0 ™
far greater than from gullying Through it a togjwj
the most fertile sod is removed from the surface wth
heavy rain. Because the material is thus removed gradually
Sbecause subsequent cultivation destroys all ev^ence o
the ill effects often go more or less unnoticed

until after much damage has been done Thtuck-

It has been shown by the experiments of R

153

SOILS AND THEIR CARE

morton and F. L. Duley of the Kansas Experiment Station
(Bulletin 260) that sheet erosion is greatly reduced when
the land is kept covered with a crop as much of the time as
possible By using a cropping system that provides for a
crop on the land most of the time, or at least during the
seasons when the greatest erosion is likely to occur, much

Istl

1

1

II

107

1

1

wm

g

O

o

«u

6

<o

*

<0

voted

4»j

">• annually tuhem, annually

clover

Fig 40 Graphs to show relative annual losses of soil by sheet erosion under
various treatments

ran be done to reduce the disastrous effects of sheet erosion
Cropping systems differ widely as to the time the land is
covered with a crop

Some crops give more effective protection than do others
(hig 40.) Small grain crops hold the soil far better than
corn or other cultivated crops Red clover forms a sod and
protects the land more effectively than a crop like soy beans
and thus gives not only more efficient but more extended
protection from washing. Sweet clover or alfalfa used in the
system gives much the same protection as red

On steepest lands, permanent grass pastures or meadows

154

FIVE ACRES

should be used as much as possible since they form the
most effective protection against erosion The less sloping
ground should be grown to small gram or kept in such
rotations that the land will be protected by a crop at least
three-fourths of the time It is only on relativdy level up-
land or bottom land that cultivated crops can be grown
more or less constantly without serious loss from erosion
Even in such cases the land should be rotated with other
crops since continuous cropping is seldom the best practise
on any soil

27

MANURES

It is the first business of the fanner to reduce the fertility of the soil,
by removing the largest crops of which the soil is capable, but ultimate
failure results for the land owner unless provision is made for restor-
ing and maintaining productiveness Every land owner should adopt for
his land a system of farming that is permanent, -a system under which
the land becomes better rather than poorer
Cyril G Hopkins,

In Sod Fertility and Permanent Agriculture

U nquestionably, the best of all fertilizers is stab
manure because as it decays it ^supplies not onlyaUits
mineral elements but nitrogen and humus It ismparbaUy
digested form and is full of micro-organisms wMch help to
unlock other plant food held w the mineral compounds ot
the soil Unfortunately it is scarcer and more o>sfly than
fore the days of autos and tractors, though, for sm^ g den
work, it may be had m dried, pulverized form through garden
supply stores or direct from the : manufacturers
Though drying concentrates these manures and kiU
weed seeds most of them contain, it also des ys
teria contained in the fresh product, but this low a m
by the almost odorlessness and convenience of appymg

by manures and ottojtoul gotoB
win grow better crops than those enriched with chemiau

MANURES

1SS

fertilizers, unless these latter are supplemented by humus
supplied in some way. But this remark must not be taken
as condemning chemical fertilizers. (Chapter 28 )

Whether manure shall be applied while fresh, after rot-
ting or in compost will depend upon various considerations.
When the aim is to improve the physical condition of a
heavy clay soil fresh manure will give best results, espe-
cially when plowed or dug under during autumn It gen-
erally decays before spring and as it does its products of
decomposition dissolve hitherto insoluble soil miner als
When the aim is to improve the physical condition of light,
sandy soils well decayed man ure a pplied in spring will give v
best results because’ its plant “foods are more quickly avail-
able than those of fresh manure

Decomposition is slow in heavy soils because the entrance
of air and water is slower than in light ones. TTenp p in heavy
soil no effect may be noticed for a year but the effects will
last longer when they do start because there is less loss of
plant food by leaching than in light sandy soils. Unless the
season is dry and the supply of moisture scanty the plant
food m fresh manures applied to sandy soils becomes avail-
able about as fast as the plants can take it up If well de-
cayed manure is applied to them its nitrogenous compounds
may be washed out of the soil before the plants can utilise
than Clay soils do not waste food in this way but absorb
mid retain it So though they require more work to get them
in condition they are usually well worth the efforts made
toward their improvement

For ordinary vegetable crops a 2-horse load of manure to
2,500 square feet (50'x50') is a liberal amount, though
half this quantity will give fair results and twice as much
, be "? st £ or c , ro P s grown for their foliage or stems—
s P inach > cabbage, cauliflower, etc
Always fresh and rotted manure should be applied to the
sar ^S^^^e^igging_or_gIpwingj dried, pulverized m a .

or harrowedix

tfcfe surface inch or so of soiPlaberal dressings of dried
manures are Sheep, 100 pounds to 1,000 square S

lSoto^C? Plge ° n ’ 75 P0UndSi h0rSe ’ 100 to 1S °. coi,

156

FIVE ACRES

The crude materials upon which bacteria work consist
of dead organic matter sudt as plant roots, leaves, stems,
animal wastes and the bodies of dead animals Higher plants
cannot use these materials in their crude form, only after
they have been converted into nitrates and other compounds
as the final products of decay or their demolition by worms,
bugs, molds, yeasts, bacteria and other forms of life, all of
which play their parts in the process When the quantity
of crude material is abundant nitrate formation may be so
great as to exceed the need of the growing crop, when
deficient the crop may use it more rapidly than it is made
and may even suffer because of this lack To prevent such
unfavorable results either nitrate must be supplied as fer-
tilizer or the quantity of crude material in the soil must be
increased.

i As nitrates are developed from ammonia in the soil, ap-
{ plications of am moniu m salts such as sulfate are often made
— at the rislf of making the soil more or less acid, unless
* lime is also added to neutralize the acid When rottedjna-
nure is available it is betterjhan ammonium salts because
ff supplies not only ammonia but considerable organic jnat-
ter for the bacteria to work upon and for a much longer
time. But as manure is scarce and often costly, green ma-
nures, especially legumes, are more available, cheaper an ,
when abundant, even more lasting in their effects (Chapter
29.)

Unless soil conditions are favorable to decay— warm,
moist and aerated— action will be slow The Physical
dition of the soil must, therefore, be made favoraWe by
such processes as plowing, harrowing and, where feasible
and necessary, by irrigation Organic mat e . m

nure and green manure plowed under when mat re (
Utraw and corn stalks) or when the sod is to ,mB [decay
much less quickly than if it is succulent and ,

5s warm and moist < * usually

1 Until recently market gardeners near large aties mu y

MANURES 157

increasing prices Experience, has suggested that though
yields were increased they did not always pay, also that
under certain conditions moderate applications of com-
mercial fertilizer paid better than did larger ones How-
ever, as such cases were unrelated they were unconvincing;
so the Mar yland Expenment Station undertook a series of
comparative experiments with six leading truck crops (cab-
bage, potatoes, spinach, com, tomatoes and peas) on a silt-
loam soil of fairly good fertility underlaid with clay to de-
termine if possible die profitable amounts of manure and
fertilizers necessary to maintain fertility. After 13 years
T. H White and V. R Boswell have tabulated and detailed
results m bulletin 309 from which the following specially
significant statements are quoted:

All treatments were beneficial insofar as yield is con-
cerned, varying from a mean percentage increase of 123%
for 500 pounds of fertilizer up to 312% for 6 tons of ma-
nure plus 750 pounds of fertilizer. Eight tons of manure
yielded 19 3% more than four tons; 12 tons yielded 13 9%
more than 8 tons and 37 08% more than 4 tons, the lower
yield bang taken as 100% in each case of these compari-
sons Considering the increasing applications . succes-
sively larger applications gave successively, although not
proportionately, larger yields But such increases are not al-
ways accompanied by greater profits.

Applications tended not only to maintain but increase
productivity Though chemical fertilzers alone, without ad-
dition of organic matter, seemed to maintain or even in-
crease productivity, actually considerable amounts of crop
residues and green manure crops of weeds were plowed
under. It is questionable whether fertilizer alone would have
given such results on a lighter soil or under Tnanag pr p PT> t jj*
which no appreciable amount of organic matter was turned
under.

Because of the scarcity and high price of manure it is
necessary to depend on other materials to a large extent to
maintain high yields The experiments show that there was
no significant difference in yield between 4 tons of manure
vs 500 pounds of fertilizer, between 8 tons of manure vs
1,000 pounds of fertilizer; between 12 tons of manure vs

158

FIVE ACRES

t

1,500 pounds of fertilizer; 2 tons plus 250 pounds fer-
tilizer vs 8 tons manure; 2 tons plus 250 pounds vs 12 tons
manure, 2 tons plus 250 pounds vs 1,000 pounds fertilizer,
4 tons plus 500 pounds vs 12 tons manure; or 4 tons plus
500 pounds vs 1,500 pounds fertilizer
These results strongly emphasize the fact that under the
conditions of die experiment 1, Commercial fertilizers main-
tain yields as well as light to medium applications of ma-
nure and, 2, light applications of manure plus fertilizer are
as effective as medium applications of manure alone or of
fairly heavy applications of fertilizer alone Furthermore,
i it was proved that certain manure-fertilizer combinations
are superior to single treatments, for instance, 2 tons ma-
nure plus 250 pounds fertilizer yielded 33 19% more than
4 tons manure alone, 2 tons plus 250 pounds fertilizer
yielded 38 50% more than 500 pounds fertilizer alone, 4
tons plus 500 pounds yielded 36 4% more than 8 tons alone,
4 tons plus 500 pounds yidded 19 17% more than 1,000
pounds fertilizer alone, 6 tons plus 750 pounds fertilizer
yielded 32 8% more than 12 tons alone, 6 tons plus 750
pounds yielded 1936% more than 1,500 pounds of fer-

ilizer alone. , , .

In emphasizing these results it must be remembered that
he soil is a silty loam of fairly good native fertility and
hat the crop residues and some weed growth were turnea
under annually on all plots The same amounts of manure
night prove relatively more important on soils espeadly
ow m organic matter to which no plant residues were

ld After all, the experimenters conclude, the grower ism-
erested in yields insofar as thqr crease his monj ( >et)
etums They remark that the data
Luces desired yields, but does so at high nmrluced
ie bought If manure is available at low cost, ^ or pro uced
m the farm, there is no question as to its value If it must
>e bought at a high price and hauled a considera
mice, A appears that under conditions sumlar to those

lescribed, it can be lephoed also be

adues and commercial fertto th ^ 29)

added green manures and cover crops

COMMERCIAL FERTILIZERS

159

28

COMMERCIAL FERTILIZERS

The fanner is often inclined to pay little attention to the forms
in which the fertilizing dements are applied, even though he may
employ sufficient quantities of a given mixed fertilizer to supply the
proper quota of each dement As a matter of fact, the selection of a
proper form or forms in which to supply the needed plant foods -mil,
in many cases, determine the success of the application of a given
formula to the crop Too much care and attention cannot be given to
this important question

William S Myers,

In Pood for Plants

I N soils that have long been cultivated, especially in those
which have been mismanaged, one or more of three or four
essential dements of plant nutrition may be rinfiriprit Pfpnro
we must resort to commercial fertilizers to supply the n eed s
of our crops.

Commercial fertilizers are of two classes; nrpanir (of
vegetablejmd animal origin) and inorganic (of mineral
origin) The former, which include~manures, play their
dhief role in improving the physical condition of the soil,
though they also supply important amounts of plant food,
the latter play less important or (some of them even nega-
tive) physical roles, but are useful for their plant foods. The
former have the advantage of ready conversion into avail-
able plant foods and of harmlessness to foliage upon which
they fau Some of their characteristics are as follows:

. ,™ d Wopd, dried fish and cottonseed meal are all rich

m nitrogen but also contain more or less potash and phos-
phoric and, ground bone, chiefly noted for its

®U^s^ogm and^ot^hrtffiie
alsonotMTor its phosphorus, but varying considerably in

b £ cause of ^rent materials from which
nitrogen ’ garbagC} sewage > etc.— also contains potash and

The plant food most likely to be lacking in the soil nit™

160

FIVE ACRES

essential elements of plant growth it is of special impor-
tance because its compounds are deficient m most soils,
costly to buy, easily lost by drainage, and yet easy to re-
place by inexpensive methods It constitutes about 80% of
the air, but not until it becomes combined with other ele-
ments in such forms as ammonia and nitrates can most
cultivated plants use it Most of these combined forms, to-
gether with varying quantities of other combinations in
organic compounds, are formed in the upper layers of the
sod where plant and animal wastes accumulate Such sup-
plies are reduced more or less rapidly by cultivation, mis-
management, seepage to lower levels, and by escape into
the air in gaseous forms

In the presence of sunlight and when supplied with water,
plants are able to get all their necessary plant food except
nitrogen from the air and the soil. But without nitrogen
they can neither grow nor even live. Growth, repair and
reproduction are all directly or indirectly dependent upon

• 7 _ f jf 1 m. ? 1 — at f rmrmfiftT lft A CAll

greeri'the supply is'ample'of "evei excessive, whenjjuny
ahd' yellowish, it is deficient Rank stems and leaves are
more susceptible' - to disease, slower to reach maturity and
less hardy than those of only moderate growth

The reason why nitrogen is often lacking in sods is that,
being highly soluble, it is readily washed out of the soil
and lost in the drainage water Hence it m best applied »
frequent but small doses during the first hdf of fte pow
ing period of the crop to be fertilized by it, never late m
the growing season of shrubs and trees because this would
nrobablv result in sappy growth that might not ripen befor
Sw Stld pffify.be kM by

In addition to the supplies from manure and oth« w
ganic materials, nitrogen is obtamed in sbvk^ chemia
forms of which nitrate pf.soda and sulfate of ammoma a
best known The* fonder, which contains about lS%ndo-

sSssrSfiSsW

161

COMMERCIAL FERTILIZERS

dissolved and is “fixed” or “held” much better in the soil
so is less likdy to be lost by leaching It is therefore of
g pprial value in sandy and other light soils and in wet
seas on* under which conditions nitrate of soda would be
quickly lost

Nitrate of soda tends to make and maintain soils in neu-
tral or alkaline condition — favorable to vegetables and
most ornamental plants; sulfate of ammonia tends to make
soil add and therefore unfavorable to these plants but
favorable to blueberries, rhododendrons and various other
add-tolerant plants The add re acti on of this ferbhzer.may
be neut ralized ..by. ,applications“‘of wood ashes or... lime.
(Chapter 30 )

Potash, the fiber maker, is often lacking in sandy soils
and in soils which have grown root crops (turnips, carrots,
beets, parsnips, etc ) for several to many years without its
adequate replacement in fertilizers or manures When defi-
dent the stems and branches of plants are weak and spin-
dling and easily broken by wind.

Potash is obtainable from four main sources — wood ashes
(about 4%), muriate of potash (50%), sulfate of potash
(48%) and kainit (12% to 16%). Ashes contain all the
mineral elements of the plants burned to make them. In
order to be most useful they must be stored and applied
dry. It will usually not pay to buy them but it will pay to
use what supplies are made on one’s own place, dusting the
material on the ground anywhere plants are to grow
Reliance for a potash supply should be placed on the
muriate or the sulfate (the former preferred) because thp^
are high grade so . need be bought and applied in only small
amounts Potash is not washed out of the soil in the drain-
age water but fixed or hdd by various materials in the
ground. It may therefore be applied at any time of year
when the ground is not frozen.

Phosphorus, the ripener, causes fruit and seed to ripen
wefi. When lacking in the soil, crops may be slow to mature
or may fail altogether. It is usually applied as superphos-

P“? te > b af c (or Thomas) slag or pulverized phosphate rock
( floats ).

Though superphosphate (formerly called add phosphate)

162

FIVE ACRES

has long been the leading phosphate fertiliser of America
it is open to the objection that its analysis (17 to 2C'r of
available phosphoric acid) is too low to meet the increasing
demand for higher grade fertilizer mixtures, moreover, in
humid weather it tends to cake because of its absorption of
moisture from the air

To offset these objections, manufacturers of nn\cd fer-
tilizers add one or another of several concentrated material'
to their goods Doubtless the most popular of these is
double superphosphate which is often marketed as "triple
superphosphate” and "treble supeiphosphalc ”

In physical properties and effects double superphosphate
Is on a par with the best of other concentrated inorganic
fertilizers such as nitrate of potash, phosphates of am-
monium and potassium When properly prepared jt neither
absorbs moisture, cakes in storage nor becomes sticky even
in humid air Hence it enhances the drilling properties of
fertilizer mixtures to which it is added and therefore make*
them flow more freely through fertilizer drills

Its solubility in water being only a tenth as great a* other
concentrated phosphate fertilizers is of great advantage >r-
cause it is far less likely to burn the crops to which it i'
applied Burning is due to highly concentrated solutions o
soluble salts either upon the foliage or m the r oil \\ hen it
replaces superliposphatc in mixtures no undesirable ><*
cfaanical or physical changes occur However, one anfon
is necessary- it should not be mixed with J

of lime, ground limestone, cyanamid, or other mat* '
rich in June When mixed with potash or a.nmoma o r nrtur
soluble sulfates a chemical reaction occurs .and I re-« »
more or less caking, but when this lias comp!r»«hn tlf
mixture is readily pulverized without t „

<1 Before applying any of these fertilizer' it * •

/ know which one is needed and which not, fc (f ,

1 avoid wasting materials and mow*. { -

do this is to divide the garden into f rip- oUt h

166

FIVE ACRES

of fertilizer is by its content of actual plant food The laws
of most states require that guaranteed analyses appear on
the packages When these are taken as the basis of cal-
culation the values of various fertilizers can be determined
and comparisons made to see which are the best ones to
buy Such calculations will usually show that pound for
pound the concentrated or so-called high grade fertilizers,
though naturally higher priced, are the more economical
to buy, first because they contain larger percentages of the
various plant foods and second because freight, cartage and
application cost less for the smaller weights of material
need be handled to obtain given quantities of plant food
Concentrated fertilizers and proprietary brands, espe-
cially the new synthetic nitrogen products, must be applied
to soils with more caution than the low grade goods In no
case should the manufacturer’s recommendations be ex-
ceeded because these may be taken as maximum safe quan-
tities In order to avoid injury it will be advisable to apply
less than the makers advise so as to be on die safe side

29

GREEN MANURES AND COVER CROPS

A cover crop is not a crop at all in the sense that it m to be removed
from the land hke gram or forage, neither should * be confused ™th
a permanent sod of grass The growing 0 cover P®
summer and fall presupposes some sort of cultivation during the spring

and early summer E WrucmsoN,

T. Th* Ahhlfi

G reen manures are crops grownsolelyfortheimp

ment of the soil When sown toward d °f “
season, either alone or among other crops as ^ £

proaching maturity, they are of , during winter

cause they are mtendedto was hmg over

GREEN MANURES AND COVER CROPS 16V

and drainage In the latter cases they are always dug or
plowed under in early spring before they have made much
growth Otherwise they might become so woody they might
decay slowly and thus, for a time, be a detriment to the soil
Plants used for green manures are of two classes. Nitro-
gen gatherers, those that work over atmospheric nitrogen
from the air in the soil; and nitrogen consumers, those that
cannot perform this function but use what nitrogenous
compounds are already in the soil The former are generally
the most important because they increase the supply of this
essential element of plant growth — the most expensive to
buy and the one most easily lost from the sod

The principal nitrogen-gathering crops are clovers,
vetches, peas, cowpeas, and soy beans; the consumers, buck-
wheat, rye, cowhom and common turnips, and Dwarf Essex
rape When the former are dug or plowed under they add
important quantities of nitrogenous material to the soil as
well as other organic compounds, when the latter are
similarly treated they add no plant food but what they took
up from the soil — no nitrogen but what they were able to
save from loss

Often these crops are sown together with one or more of
the first group so as both to save nitrogenous compounds
already in the soil and to manufacture new supplies One
of the favorite combinations is rye and winter vetch; an-
other buckweat and crimson dover Sometimes all four of
these are sown together in July after an early vegetable
crop has been harvested, or even while the crop is still oc-
cupying the ground. In the former case the ground is dug
or plowed and made fine before sowing; in the latter only
the surface is made loose by a cultivator and the seed sown
either broadcast or in drills between the rows of standing
crops Though buckwheat plants are killed by the first
frost and though winter may kill crimson dover the veg-
etable matter these crops develop will be just as good as if
alive when turned under. Rye and vetch which will prob-
ably live through the winter must be dug or plowed under
before they get 8" high or the job will be difficult and the
effects may not be as good as if the plants were more suc-
culent.

168

FIVE ACRES

When fresh or rotted manure is available it is highly ad-
vantageous to apply liberally just before a cover crop or a
green manure crop is turned under because the bacteria
these contain will help to break down the buried plants and
thus make their plant food material more quickly available
to the succeeding crops

A green manure is measured for efficiency by its effect
on the crops that follow However, a failure should not al-
ways be laid to the crop since any one of many factors may
be influential in the decomposition of the buried plants For
instance, most soil bacteria require a temperature of at
least 65°F to work properly In spring the soil is usually
too cold for their rapid work Shortage of water in the soil
also slows or even stops their action Under most favorable
conditions succulent green manures decompose in about a
week but under lower temperatures and less moisture twice
as long or longer

Decomposition of green manure converts much of the
plant matter into carbon dioxide which, either passes into
the air as such or combines with water in the soil to form
carbonic acid. This acid converts more or less various
soil minerals into forms which plants can utilize or
which pass out of the soil in the drainage. Other parts o
the green manures are converted into ammonia which re-
mains m the soil and through bacterial action is converted
into nitrates Hence the larger the percentage of nitrogen «>
the plants buried the greater will be the quantity of nitrates
Hence also the high value of legumes— dovers, vetch«, etc
Conversely, when the content of nitrogen is low (asm ye)
the bacteria may use all of it for their ® . '

when these die and decay they give this nitrogen back to

* wSL the quantity of nitrogen is very low, asm i straw,

harmful effects may result from an ^ c S a u y

bacteria may take their nitrogen from the soil and actually
compete with the crop plants being grown in

GREEN MANURES AND COVER CROPS 169

dons losses are greatest while the ground is wet and bare
dunng late fall, winter and early spring, least during sum-
mer when it is dry and also when liberally covered with a
growing crop

This indicates that in order to prevent losses of nitrates
by seepage the management of the soil must be such as to
prevent the accumulation of nitrates during summer and
par ly a utumn One way to do this is to plan the crop rota-
tion so that one will be in active growth while, or soon after,
nitrate formation is most active Should it not be convenient
or profitable to do this with a “money crop,” then a green
manure or a cover crop may be added to the rotation so as
to keep the surface covered with verdure Such a crop will
not only utilize the nitrates as formed or soon after and
produce a lush growth, but will prevent their losses in drain-
age water.

Choice of crop will depend upon the time of year when
the money crops will reach harvesting development Some
kinds such as cowpeas and buckwheat require warm or hot
weather for their development and are tender to frost;
others such as rye and winter vetch need cool weather and
are resistant to frost damage The time to sow need not
necessarily be after the money crop has been harvested; it
need not be postponed until the ground can be plowed and
harrowed or dug and raked prior to sowing On the con-
trary, it is not only often possible but advisable to sow the
seed of the green manure or cover crop among and several
weeks before the money crop will be ready for harvest The
amount of loss of plants due to tramping while harvesting
the money crop will be more than offset by the avoidance of
fitting the land for the green manure or cover crop and the
extra saving of nitrates and other soluble plant foods in
the soil.

Choice of the green manure or cover crop will also de-
pend upon whether or not an increased supply of nitrates
is desired in the soil. When such an increase is wanted the
choice should be a nitrogen gatherer — some legume, when
not, it should be a nitrogen consumer For summer use cow-
peas, soy beans, velvet beans and summer vetch are most
popular among the legumes; for fall and winter, crimson

170

five acres

? airy or ™ nter vetch Canada field peas The

k! 6 ^ ener j Uy J°™ d V rin S lat e spring or early sum-
mer to be plowed under dunng late summer or early fall:
crimson clover is sown during midsummer, winter vetch be-
tween July and September and Canada field peas during
August or September. 6

Sweet clover or mehlot has notable value as a green ma-
nure, especially on heavy soils, because of its deep rooting
habit and the abundance of its foliage However, if the soil
is acid it may fail unless lime or superphosphate is applied
shortly before seeding Also it may fail if "unscanfied”
(machine scratched) seed is sown late — after the ground
has become dry in spring Such seed gives best results when
sown in late fall or on the snow during winter In these
cases the plants get an earlier start than the weeds winch
they choke out Scarified seed cannot be safely used in
this way because it germinates too early Like other le-
gumes, the seed should be inoculated unless the soil has al-
ready grown this plant. When the plants are 8" or 10"
high is the best time to plow them under for green manure
Though the plants are grown for improving the soil they
may need fertilizer to get a good start and to make a strong
growth When properly inoculated they get all the nitrogen
they need from the air, so usually no nitrogenous fertilizer
need be applied Yet when the soil is suspected to be lacking
in this element a little nitrate of soda or sulfate of ammonia
may be applied, especially when seeding is delayed^ until
May This will help overcome the handicap A dressing of
SO pounds to the acre may make a difference of 4,000
pounds or more of plant growth to the acre
The fertilizers usually most needed by roelOot are phos-
phates, even though sweet clover is famous for assimilating
crude phosphates from the sod and converting them into
other forms which become available when the plants decay
Yet if the sod is acid the plants seem to be unable to use
the crude phosphates Hence the advisability of applying
lime or basic slag which are strongly alkaline and thus neu-
tralize the acidity

On sandy sods lacking in potash an application of muriate
or sulfate of this element will often prove helpful.

LIME

171

30

LIME

Indirect fertilizers are of increasing interest and importance Their
intelligent use is attended with satisfactory results m crop growing, but
blind, lndiscrmunating use may work barm to sod and crops and loss
to fanners

Lucres L Van Slyre,

In Fertilisers and Crop Production

V arious materials are called “indirect” fertilizers or
“amendments” because, though they may or may not
contain plant food they are used chiefly to mate chants in
the soil and thus help plants to get food already present but
in otherwise unavailable forms The most important is limp
Lime is an alkali, a chemical which has the power to
combine with an acid to form a “salt.” It is therefore used
as a soil amendment chiefly for this purpose and thus to
maintain the soil in “neutral” or slightly alkaline condition.
If we were to use only natural manures our soils would
continue favorable to plant growth much longer than when
we use chemicals that contain acids (especially hydrochloric
and sulfuric) which we apply whenever we fertilize with
muriate or sulfate of potash or with sulfate of ammraw>
When we use such fertilizers we must sooner or later use
lime to neutralize the acids they contain The salts formed
by these acids with the lime (chloride of lime and sulfate of
lime— or gypsum), being highly soluble in water, are washed
out of the soil in the drainage water, thus preventing dam-
age these two powerful adds would do to soils and ninths
Other adds are similarly neutralized by limp
When land is cultivated and fertilized but yields onlv
7S% 50% or 30% of a full crop it is like running SauS
mobile with its wheels off the ground— it doesn’t get anv-
where' Soil fertilizer, and water are all present andlabor
is expended but acidity prevents fruition
Although experimental work in many states indicatps
that most vegetable crops do best on neutral or only slightly
acid sods, the New Jersey Station felt that furtheMnforma-

1/4

JFXYH* ALA JM

tion would be valuable, so field plots where lime has bee
used in varying amounts at five-year intervals for 20 \eai
were diosen for gathering data Two hinds of limcston
fwere used — caldum and magnesium— both finely groun
land applied broadcast shortly .before seeding Without g<
4ng into"the details of Bulletin 49S, all of which were idet
tical except for the lime, let it here suffice that these c\per
ments prove that*

In many cases labor and fertilizer arc wasted becaus
productive capacity is distinctly lowered by the acid cor
dition of the soil, that in every case the yields were muc!
increased where lime was used, that beets nndcarrots wer
a failure on the unlimed plot, partly because acidity reducej
germination; that poor germination of seeds due to soi
acidity delays marketing or even results in loss of crop
that, because of its value in growing soil-improving crops
lime may have an important indirect effect, because nios
of these crops do best on soils only slightly acid, that ccr
tain soil organisms which play important parts in soil fer-
tility are greatly favored by a soil well supplied with lime,
that strongly acid soils may contain soluble aluminum com-
pounds which are tovic to certain crop plants, whereas lime
puts these compounds out of action, that heavy applications
of superphosphate will do the same, but lime l« more eco-
nomical; and that when used in moderate amounts, there i,
little choice between the magnesian and the non-ma«nc>U»

Iin Gypsum or land plaster cannot be used to ncutralije nrijb
because it is already a salt (sulfate of ca c,«,m It J
used, however, for the other purpose- ^ "h cb hw
employed so it is safer to apply when a soil £ rin» >> ft< f
tral or slightly alkaline and therefore not in need ti

caustic form of lime a,#*™.™- ^I mhrt

Several fairly accurate apparatuses to ^t«m»nr whtthrt

a foil is acid, neutral or alkaline art

supply stores For practical purposes, however, Uw '

inc wavs will answer: . , , 11 . ,» ,,

I. Jtot.c asimpk' or .S ,.! jW-

/

i. n w* . J

in a bottle, allow the sediment f ^ Ir , ,

gists’ red and blue litmus piper in \hr t.itcr ami n

nv

LIME 173

chang e of color If the red paper turns blue the soil is alka-
line; if the blue paper turns red the soil is add, if neither
paper changes much it is neutral.

' 2 Instead of the litmus test add a teaspoonful of weak
ammonia (not the “doudy” household stuff but pure am-
monia in water) to the muddy water After standing over

Fig 42 Diagram to show losses of lune through crops and drainage

night if the liquid has turned dark brown or black the soil
is acid, if not it is neutral or alkaline.

Govern your applications of lime or gypsum by what
several such samples of soil taken from various parts of the
field indicate.

Because of its caustic nature lime must never be brought
in direct cohtact"with mahure'Its chemical' action drives
the ammonia'of-the manure Into the air. We need every bit
of this ammonia for our plants so should try to prevent its
loss by dusting the manure with some absorbent or by bury-

174

FIVE ACRES

25* f fa the son M s , oon ^ Possible Among the best ib.

«c d as P S^

Wood ashes should be handled in the same way w lime

F«B 4J Sod ■amplc-LiXim; to tKt tor aciditv S'pivn frdira’r
utnp'tj, cirtks Ihn’e ot salt at)

because, though they contain all the mineral drmrnt> of
plant food, they are noted for their potash anil limi conti it!
and the effects of the latter upon soils. Stvtr e houM they
be mhed with manures.

» ' As lime and gypsum ah ay's work rlimmv,ml in thr ‘off
j from the level oi their application it 11 i' iportant to apply
, them ajtff the ground has bwn dm* or pW«l and to ttw
j or harrow' them in Hit surface. Jf they arr npphid WU’f-

COMPOST

175

plowing they work downward from the level of the inverted
sod and are therefore of no use in the surface layer. When
these materials are to be used at the same tim e as m anure .
the" manure should be applied before pIowing~oF“ digging
SncTtKe lime“br gypsum afterwards
” The amount of lane to apply will vary with the character
of the soil and the degree of acidity. For light sandy loams
an application of 1,000 to 2,000 pounds of pulverized lime-
stone or 700 to 1,500 pounds of slaked lime (hydrate) to
the acre should be ample as a dressing unless the soil is
decidedly add, then double the quantity may be applied.
For a heavy day, 1,500 to 5,000 or 6,000 pounds of pul-
verized limestone or 1,300 to 5,000 pounds of slaked lime
to the acre are liberal applications As a rule it will not be
necessary to apply lime oftener than once in 3 to 6 years
Of the several forms in which lime may be bought the
kind generally known as hydrated or agricultural is the most
convenient It is sold in paper bags, is finely pulverized and
passes through one’s hand like melted butter. However, it
may be more evenly applied by a fertilizer distributor.

31

COMPOST

The compost heap can be made a prolific source of hinm-mafe
manure^ Every faun and garden should have one of sufficiently large
proportion to take care of all refuse organic material about the place

Samuel B Gkeen,

In Vegetable Gardening.

C OMPOST plays such an important role and has so many
uses that its manufacture is one of the fundamental
processes of professional gardening. Whether your garden
be large or small you should have a compost pile to supnlv
the needs of your cold frames, hotbeds and greenhouse if
no more

Compost is specially prepared loam which contains all
the elements of plant food added to it artifidallv. It is

176

FIVE ACRES

worked over for uniformity in composition and texture and
is almost a fertilizer itself If your sod is a S vytS n t
lay it wiU be greatly benefited if the compost mntamc a

rnwfw 6 P”P° rtl0 n of sand, sifted anthracite coal ashes,
muck, leaf mold, rotted sawdust, chaff from a straw stack
etc , all of which tend to lighten the soil with which mixed
and when they decay to increase the content of humus
One good way to make compost is as follows In the
autumn place wide boards an inch thick on edge so as to
form a rectangle 6 or 8 feet wide The length may be as
desired Fill this bin with fallen leaves wdl wetted and
tramped down On these place a 3"x4" layer of sods up-
side down and dose together Next spread a 3" or 4" layer
of manure, preferably from a cow stable, on top of the sod
Repeat these alternations of layers until the pile is 4' or
5' high As it rises make each layer a little narrower than
the one below so the completed pile in cross section will be
like a letter A with a broad top. The finishing touch con-
sists in covering the sloping sides with 2" or 3" of good soil
well pounded and flattened with a spade to make it firm
Make the top of the pile about 3' across and hollow it out
so as to form a basin 4" to 6" deep and nearly as long as the
pile. Fill this with water in dry weather.

Besides the materials mentioned it is good to scatter
ground bone, hardwood ashes, superphosphate, ground
phosphate rock (“floats”) tankage, dried blood, or other
fertilizer or materials rich in plant food upon the various
layers so as to enrich the final compost Ground limestone
or lime liberally sprinkled on each layer will help break
down the vegetable matter and "sweeten” the final compost
So prepared the compost will be of special value where
the soil is somewhat add as well as more or less depleted
in plant food Always add to the pile anything that will
readily decay and thus make plant food — vegetable and
animal refuse, weeds or garbage free from fats and oils
The main reasons for making such a pile in the autumn
are that the seeds of weeds in the manure and the sods will
become moist enough to swell, be frozen and destroyed,
that there is usually abundance of material at that season
and that time is g enerally less fully occupied than in spring.

CROPPING SYSTEMS 177

In case a pile cannot be conveniently made in the fall it
may be made at any season when materials are available.

An autumn-made pile should stand until late the follow-
ing summer when a sharp, square bladed spade should be
used to slice the pile vertically downward so as to cut
through all the layers. The sliced material is used to form
another pile, die outer parts of the first being thrown on
the inner part of the second to insure decay. When possible
the pile may be allowed to stand for two years because the
compost will "ripen” and be better than 1-year material.

All that is necessary in the final handling of such compost
is to slice it vertically downward and pass the material
through a mason’s sieve with a W' mesh to get rid of stones,
dods and other debris.

32

CROPPING SYSTEMS

There is no one question of greater importance to the farming in-
dustry than that of soil fertility In order that the industry may be
successful, it is not enough to produce crops, it is necessary that the
production shall result m a genuine profit That is, it is not enough to
produce crops which bring more than they cost m the way of labor
and manures, without taking into consideration the effects of their
growth upon the future productive capacity of the soil.

E B Voorhees,

In Fertilizers

N o man can do his best when sick; neither can a soil 1
Under such conditions the diaracter and quantity of
both human and soil products are below par and continue to
slump as long as unfavorable conditions last In countless
cases diagnosis shows that one or more fundamental prin-
dples of health have been or are being violated; for experi-
ence proves that when these are followed health and produc-
tion are normal and characteristic.

The commonest way by which soils become “sick” is by
being forced to produce the same crop or closely (botan-

178

FIVE ACRES

ically) related crops year after year without change Like
yourself, soils not only enjoy variety of diet but evidence
their appreciation by increased and more profitable pro-
duction Hence has arisen “crop rotation,” a general farm-
ing practise which consists m having from 2 to 5 unrelated
crops occupy the land in prescribed sequence, usually dur-
ing as many, often more years
The advantages of rotation are. 1, Each crop of a well
planned rotation leaves the soil in good physical condition
for the next; 2, faults and disadvantages of one season’s
treatment may be corrected in the next, 3, plant foods may
be maintained in better balance and supply than when the
same or related crops are grown continuously, 4, plant
duspntng and insect enemies that live in the soil are starved
out, 5, trouble from weeds is reduced; 6, labor is econo-
mized for various of the above reasons, 7, one or more of
the crops (a green manure) maintains or helps to maintain
the supply of humus in the soil and when this crop is a
legume (e g , clover), 8, the supply of nitrogen in the soil
is supplemented or maintained at trifling cost Rotation of
crops implies and includes rotation of tillage, manuring and
other cultural practises so the land benefits both directly

and indirectly. . „ TT . .

Actually, of course, soils do not become sick Unhke a
human or an animal, they do not need to recuperate ! Tb
trouble with them is usually either that they leave an excess
of certain by-products in the soil, due to a repetition of o
crop (or of botamcally related crops), or they have exhausted
the available supplies of certain elements necessary to their

W< When such conditions occur in market gardenin g, as th ey
often do, they are most easily and economy y
by seeding down the area to grass for at Je y

By this practise a crop of bay (and aftermath) may^b
harvested, a sod may be plowed under to add humus to the

S a hay “OP Each of tba otter dmaoos atouW

Fig. 44. Rotation of vegetable crops according to botanical families. (See Fig 41.)

180

FIVE ACRES

be devoted consecutively to produce a root crop (turnips,
beets), a fruit crop (tomatoes, cucumbers), a salad crop
(lettuce, cabbage) and a seed crop (corn, peas). Where this
practise is not feasible the seven-year plan illustrated m
Figure 45 will provide a good substitute

In addition to crop rotation, four other systems of crop-
ping are practised to gam other ends 1. Marker cropping
consists in thinly sowing seed of a quick-sprouting and
maturing crop in the same rows as a slow sprouting one
(parsnip, carrot) or one whose seedlings are hard to see
(beet, onion) when they first come up The favorite marker
is a forcing variety of radish. In less than a week (often in
three or four days) the broad seed leaves of the radish ap-
pear and thus mark the location of the rows thus acting as
guides for the hoe which should be started that early.

When the radish seeds are dropped about 2" apart the
seedlings do not interfere with the permanent crop and when
a quick ma turing variety is sown the radishes should all
have been gathered within a month, thus leaving the later
crop in full possession The practise is applicable on only a
small scale because the seed of each crop must be sown
separately by hand When seed is sown by a dnH marker
cropping is not necessary because the roller of the dnll
presses down the soil above the rows and leaves an easily
seen mark which serves as a guide for the wheelhoe that
should be used a day or two after sowing.

2 Partnership cropping consists of growing
different crops from start to finish on the same area javonte
crops so treated are pumpkins or winter squaj corn,
pole beans with corn; dwarf peas, tomatoes
Sith strawberries In this last case the vegetaWe pknts^are
removed as soon as they have been cropped o

& In rae^ofmy gardens I set strawberry P^% 24 "
each way, planted corn between

oole beans to climb on the com, bush «ceot

Cs and ™«ar sqnash * JM M ■“ft’* fig

lowing

CROPPING SYSTEMS 181

3. Companion cropping consists in sowing alternate rows
or setting alternate plants of two or more crops that require
different lengths of time to mature. The short season crops
are removed before the long season kinds need the whole
space, thus neither interferes with the other so several crops
may be harvested from the same area To be successful it is
essential that the companions mature at different seasons,
that one be a catch crop or less valuable than the other, that

F.g 45 Dagram of companion crops Cabbage, outer rows, lettuce, center
radishes, between ’

SMSST"- ” d - “4a

Favorite companion crop combinations are- Kn/iieW v

Papers, cucumber or mdon SaK h! ° r , egg P laQts or
set between early bUsh ****’> plants

or also with SSfafiSSlf c “ W *8 e ro ^ « both

o{ ^bage and lettuce In this last caserti 6h ^- e ? rows
mo\ed before the lettuce toSS!?**?*** are re-

ts gathered and the cabbage left in fulFnn ’ ^ Iettuc »
tto by , «!£,*« IW^on This my

““ nd ' > <S ^nSSVfSh £“?*« ® P'Mtiag a

sRassS:

182

FIVE ACRES

ing period of each crop must be short enough to allow in
successor ampfe time to mature and, for XadV

Cr ? P shou,d be of 3 difieront botanical
family from its two or three predecessors

Favorite succession crops are: Earliest sawn or planted—
round beet, peas, forcing carrot, lettuce radish, early
cabbage, peppergrass, mustard, spinach, kohlrabi, turnip,
scallion, early potato, fotticus. Sccot’d sown or planted—
bean, beet, corn, cucumber, melon, citron, eggplant. Xcw
/.ealand spinach, okra, pepper, pumpkin, celery, cauliflower,
Kohlrabi, squash, tomato, rutabaga, turnip, ’late cabbage,
.Brussels sprouts, kale Third sowing or planting (for fall
use)— round beet, forcing carrot, winter radish, spinach,
fetticus, cress, radish, turnip, mustard

Crops not suited to succession cropping because they
occupy the ground from spring to fall. Parsley, parsnip,
sweet potato, chicory, salsify, leek, scorroncra and the peren-
nial vegetables— asparagus, artichoke and rhubarb

33

SOIL SURFACE MANAGEMENT

Tirr thoroughness with which the soil is prcjnrid for p'-m'iv t,e
tcrmincs, to a large extent, the cost of the after culm -*110 » of llr rn>p
It also predetermines, to a \eij rovithrahh ««'tm rht ••'"'I of
plants which will result from the u'e of good «u«l f>o<id - rd
poorly prepared soil nil piae an umatiMactwj ami ni‘< 1 of
plants, while good seed upon thoroughly prtjurfd fin* >'vr a
perfect stand of plants

UK C Cml’Xf

In O' * - t "rt*t

N i \t to developing ami maintaining a good -«il ft* ‘'*d-
lined in Chppttr 26, tilhigi 1 * the nv> t
feature of coil management Ijcchm* it largth intha.’t r L>'«i
yield and quality of product. It modi fit - tin* plu-irtl j, ru"
ture of the soif, alters soil tr mprratun , a< r.'ti - fiw xml.
m4e- conditions favorable to lncteria rod other rrrituu

183

SOIL SURFACE MANAGEMENT

that change soil constituents, destroys weeds, prevents soil
washing by rains and winter snows and covers manures,
green manures, etc , by plowing and digging
To attain these ends tillage must be done at the right
time, in workman-like fashion and with the proper took
Timeliness is of supreme importance because upon it success
may depend more than upon any other factor. Soil condi-
tions may be exactly right today to plow, dig, harrow, rake,
hoe, or weed but tomorrow be unfavorable for any of these
operations because of a rain and because wetness may con-
tinue for a week longer Weeds will not be slow to take
advantage of this opportunity to grow without molestation
and they will be all the more difficult and costly to master in
consequence Apart from that, however, the delay may post-
pone seed sowing or plant setting until conditions are less
favorable than would have been the case had the delay not
occurred

Thoroughness is gained first by using the right implement
or tool and second by using it in the right way Labor-saving
implements generally do better work, more easily, cheaply
and quickly than do old fashioned ones So before you buy
such be sure to determine its efficiency, adaptability to the
work required, the ease with, and speed at which it may be
operated, its durability and (lastly) its price.

Prior to plowing it is a good practise to use a disc or a
cutaway harrow from end to end and when possible from
side to side across the area so as to chop up the surface and
combine the manure, green manure, weeds, etc , with it 2",
3" or deeper; for when this fined earth, manure, and other
material is plowed under it mixes more intimately and with
smaller air cavities than would be the case with large dods.
Water connection between the subsoil and the surface will
also be improved and the vegetable matter of the manure
made to decay more readily These remarks apply especially
to spring and summer plowing
You may plow (or dig) whenever the soil is in fit con-
dition-autumn, .spring or summer In cold climates fall
plowing (and digging) is especially useful in improving
heavy soils, provided the furrow slices and dods are left un-
broken during winter just as the plow turns them up- for

184

FIVE ACRES

thus rain and snow water pass into instead of over the
ground, penetrate deeply and form a reservoir of larger
capacity than if the ground were harrowed then More im-
portant, however, the large, rough clods are broken apart
by frost and made finer. Manure, green manure, weeds, etc.,
become decayed sooner than would the same materials
plowed under m spring or summer, hence are more quickly
available to the succeeding crop The soil being more or less
on edge, rough and therefore with larger surface, dries
out more quickly than if it were flat, so spring harrowing
and planting may be done sooner Fall plowing may often
be done when work is not pressing, thus reducing the rush
work of the spring Plowmen are then more likely to be
available than in spring when everybody wants them. Fall
plowing also exposes many hibernating insects to destructive
agencies such as frost, birds and other animals
In climates where the ground freezes little or not at all
plowing in the fall is less desirable than m spring because
plant food may be lost by leaching due to autumn and winter

rams. ....

Whether in a cold or a warm climate wait to do spring
plowing until the soil has lost its excess water either by
drainage or by ordinary sun and air drying To hasten dry-
ing it is advisable to avoid applying manure until just before
plowing because this material when spread long before
plowing becomes soaked with water, acts like a mulch and
checks evaporation of water from the soil

Harrowing follows plowing (except m the fa U) to Bt the
soil for sowing and planting. Harrows are of m slyte.
At least two (preferably three) should be used, one for
breaking down the furrow slices, the second for educing the
clods and the third for making the surface fine and moa th
The spike-tooth, one of the oldest s tylM,doK poorer wor^
than do many of the more recent inventions
penetrate the soil deeply enough; thcypusiesidcor buy
die clods instead of pulverizing them and I (ends to Imn c

SOIL SURFACE MANAGEMENT

185

better as pulverizers, especially of soddy and clayey soils.
When weighted heavily they cut almost as deeply as their
axles For this reason they are without rivals for preliminary
harrowing of heavy soils.

To follow these implements the Acme and the Meeker
harrows are especially valuable. The former pulverizes
several inches deep, breaks dods missed by the other har-
rows and smooths the surface wdl; the latter starts where
the former leaves off and makes as fine a surface as can be
made by hand with the steel garden rake, crushing even the
smallest dods and leaving a wdl smoothed seed-bed when
its work is done

Besides using the harrows best adapted to the soil and
the work in hand successful harrowing depends upon the
amount of water in the soil When wet more harm than good
may result because of puddling, when too dry a large pro-
portion of the dods, particularly of dayey soils, will re-
main unbroken One of the commonest errors is to leave the
plowed furrows for several to many days before harrowing
them During this time the soil loses enormous quantities of
water through evaporation and the dods, esperially if stiff,
bake more or less and cannot be broken by the harrow.
Therefore, except for fall plowing, make this your invari-
able rule. Plow in the morning, continue until only so myrli
is plowed as can surely be harrowed before the work day
ends. That is, insist that all the ground plowed in the par ly
part of the day be harrowed the same day— -none left until
the next

In fitting the plowed ground for sowing or planting you
will find the following order of procedure advisable for
heavy day soils - If a sod has been plowed under, the disc
or the cutaway harrow will be better than the spring-tooth
because the latter may bring lumps of sod to the surface 1
Spnng-tooth harrow, dragged parallel to the furrows*’ 2
disc or cutaway, also parallel; 3, disc or cutaway at neht
angles to the furrows; 4, spring tooth at right angles to the
disc or cutaway work; 5, repetition of four if needed, but
at ngbt angles; if not needed then; 5, with Acme harrow
at right angles to four; 6, finishing with the Meeker as often
as needed to make a fine, smooth and even seed bed, each

186

FIVE ACRES

? right t0 ** P r ece*ng one If you have

rss ,e ' ^ sssjrss

ninw^f area to be made int0 garden is too small to be

FnrTnnaM tCam 0r *“?* ^ work must be done by hand
ftrtunatdy you 080 113115 do a far better job than with

personSte^Sr 7011 ^ ** "** CublC foot

Six tools are in popular use for garden digging, namely ,

Fig 46 Wrong and right ways to dig

the long and the short handled shovel, the long and the short
handled spade and the long and the short handled digging
fork The first three are incapable of doing as thorough a
job as the last three As the blades of the shovels are shorter
than those of the spades and are curved they cannot be as
deeply thrust in the sod, also only the curved tips reach
maximum depths Though the long handled spade and the
long handled digging fork are powerful tools for prying up
the soil clods their round handles make them hard to turn
when inverting “spits” of soil (A “spit” is a gardeners’
term for the chunk of earth full depth of the spade blade
and as wide both ways )

The short handled spade and the short handled digging
fork not only dig deeply when their blades or tines are
thrust vertically m the ground but, because of their D-

SOIL SURFACE MANAGEMENT 187

shaped handles, they are easy to turn over when dumping
the spits of soil Of these six tools the spading fork is the
best for all soils except sandy ones which when dry may not
lift out well but more or less slip between the tines For such
soils the spade is to be preferred

The wrong way to use spades and diggmg forks is to
thrust them in the ground more or less slantingly. (Fig 46.)
This demands more stooping than the correct way, is much
harder work, does not properly bury the surface material
(manure, weeds, etc ) and requires fully as much time as
the right way

The right way to use the spade and the fork is to thrust
the blade or tines vertically full depth in the soil using the
foot to bring the crosspiece at the top even with the surface,
then to pry the spit up, invert it completely and finally
break it small with blows from the tool The advantages of
this are that manure, weeds and other trash on the surface
are completely buried

Ordinary digging consists in inverting the soil only one
spit deep When the soil is well drained, either naturally or
as described in Chapter 18 this is usually sufficient, though
it is a good plan to deepen the whole area either by plow and
subsoiler or by one of the various styles of trenching In
substitute trenching (the simplest but least satisfactory of
trenching methods) the surface spit is dug m the usual way
but the layer beneath this is loosened either by thrusting the
fork deeply and at short intervals into it, by lifting up spits
and letting them fall so hard as to break or by inverting
them in the same way as the surface spits are turned upside
down

True trenching is safe to practise only where the soil is
already deep either naturally or from previous good manage-
ment A trench two spits deep is dug at one end across the
area to be trenched and the soil wheeled to the opposite end
where it is laid in a long pile Then a second trench is dug
one spit deep next to the first and this top soil thrown in
the bottom of the first trench Before digging the lower spit
of this second trench a 3" or 4" layer of well decayed
manure, leaf mold or rich vegetable compost is spread on
the inverted top spit Then the lower spit of the second

188

FIVE ACRES

trend] is dug and placed on the compost. This order repeats
itself until the last trench has been dug when the soil wheeled
from the first trench is shoveled in
So-called “bastard” trenching is a safer method where
the soil has not been improved The surface soil two spits
across (Fig 47) and the full width of the area to be trenched
is dug out and wheeled to the farther end where it is laid in
a pile as long as the area is wide Then a trench one spit

wide and one deep is dug in the subsoil (B), wheeled and
piled parallel with but separate from that Jready -placed
there Next, the subsoil (B) is broken wvth the spatog
fork (or a pickaxe if hard) and a 3 or 4 layer of veg
table matter worked into the loosened earth i Then *e sub
soil (C) is dug and placed on toe Jaosened lower l^er J 1 ;

described Next, the top soil (D) I is dug ^placed a ,
thus exposing the subsoil C which is dug an
and the subsoil dressed with vegetable matter hke B ms
order of procedure continues until the farmer end of the
area is reached when the pile of subsoil w ta ble

placed in the bottom of the trench, a layer of vegetable

S5 . . . F-— T

- »—

SOIL SURFACE MANAGEMENT 189

gardens the work justifies itself, for the plants grown in
trenched soil have at least double the feeding area that
others have in sod prepared by ordinary digging or plowing
In most climates they require no irrigation because the
trenched soil catches and holds far larger volumes of water
than does soil ordinarily prepared. The results are that the
plants thrive amazingly and in case of fruits and vegetables
are of far superior quality to those grown m less carefully
prepared ground

Two great advantages that digging has over plowing are
first that every cubic inch of soil may be given intimate
personal attention and second that when properly done a
larger proportion of moisture in the soil may be saved To
do the work properly break each spit with the fork as soon
as you turn it over, by “spatting 5 ’ it or thrusting the tines
mto it and twisting them or by doing both to break the dods
The best way to break the spit is to give it a sidewise blow
so one tine after another will strike it and each take off a
slice In this way you will do a better job with less effort
and with less risk of breaking the tool than if you whack
the spit with all the tines at once. Furthermore you will
leave the ground in better condition for the next operation
— raking

The steel rake takes up soil preparation where the har-
row or the fork (or the spade) leaves off. When digging,
always use it when you have dug four or five rows across the
garden because you can thus stand on firm ground, avoid
tramping on the soft, newly dug soil and, most important,
do a thorough job and save the greatest amount of soil mois-
ture Always rake immediately after digging — never post-
pone this work until next day, or even from morning until
afternoon

Of all tools the rake is most often used improperly and
carelessly but with which you can take most pride in using
skillfully Its primary mission is to break up and pulverize
clods and remove stones and trash that later would inter-
fere with cultivation and the well-being of plants Second,
it reduces hillocks and hollows to one uniform surface!
Third, either turned upside down or right side up it may be
used to open little furrows for seed sowing Fourth, when

190

FIVE ACRES

the handle is held almost vertically and the head patted
u p on and along the row it is excellent to firm the seed m the
soil without packing too hard

The proper way to use the rake is to start by a push and
pull movement (not a downward whack) so as to hit only
the tips of the clods with the teeth, then gradually work
lower until the clods are completely broken and the teeth
move freely their full depth through the soil without en-
countering obstacles, sods, weeds and other organic ma-
terials having been brought to the surface and thrown in the
bottom of the trench, and the stones and other thmgg that
will not decay removed Should there be small hollows m
the surface, turn the rake upside down '(teeth pointing up-
ward) and use the back to draw loose surface soil from
adjacent elevations Then be sure to rake the elevations full
depth of the teeth to get rid of any buried clods that may
have been made nearer the surface by the removal of the
soil After the rake has finished, the garden will be ready for
seed sowing and plant setting

If your vegetable garden is smaller than SO x SO feet you
will probably sow the seed by hand But for this and larger
areas and for quantities of vegetable seed larger than
packets the seed drill will not only save a great ded of time
an d work but if you adjust and use it properly it will do a
better job than can possibly be done by hand It makes
straight and narrow rows, opens the furrows, drops, covers
and firms the seed, and marks the course of the next paral-
lel row as you leisurely stroll across the garden More even
than all that, with its roller it leaves an easily seen mark
from end to end of each row, thus enabling you to start culti-
vation and weed killing before the vegetable seeds appear
Still further, it confines the seedlings to a much narrower
space than the hand can Thus it favors the work of weed
killing dose to the seedlings and therefore reduces hand

weeding .

These machines may be bought separately or as attacn-
ments to many styles of hand wheelhoes, the latter preferred
for the small garden As they sow one row and mart the
position of the next, a taut guide line is needed for only the
first row, the others being parallel

SOIL SURFACE MANAGEMENT

191

Whether or not you buy a seed drill be sure to get at least
a wheelhoe because it will save an enormous amount of work
with the hand hoe and the rake and do it better
When choosing a wheelhoe bear the following points in
mind: Styles with high single wheels and broad tires are
earner to run but more unsteady than those with small wheels

48 Whodhoes Se6der attached above, "sweeps” or "scuffle hoes” below.

192

FIVE ACRES

and narrow tires and most of them have fewer attachments.
Single-wheel styles will work m narrower spaces than 2-
wheel styles but are less firm and therefore harder to guide
Though they work well between but not very close to the
rows they can be used on only one side at a time. Two-
wheeled styles can work both sides of the rows at once and
more closely to the plants than would be safe to risk with
a single-wheel style. Moreover, many of the double-wheel
styles may be converted into single-wheel implements by
removing a couple of bolts and attaching only one wheel
Whatever style of wheelhoe you choose be sure to get the
following attachments Right and left cultivator shovels
When placed with their points together these make a fair
substitute for a shallow plow, when the points are separated
they will throw earth away from the row of plants between
them; and when reversed they will throw earth toward the
row between them or cover a furrow previously opened
Culttvator teeth, usually four with each machine These
fea r up the packed soil between the rows They cannot be
run dose to the rows without danger of injuring the plants
Two pairs of sweeps ( or scuffle hoes), one long, the other
short When set dose together these may be run withinless
than an inch of the seedlings without risk of injury T ey
slice the surface soil between or on each side of the rows
cutting W' deep or deeper One pair each of MrwMjfoid
five-prong rakes, the former for narrow, the latter for wider

SP B C Sid b i tW uSe°Sential attachments are arorijcto
which may or may not be worth your having For mstence,
the plows one of which throws the furrow
to both sides Though convenient these «
when the right and left shovels are mduded A pair of

toothed three-gang cultivators they bin ^

rows than do the ordinary cultivators because i they ma P
smaller dods The three-gang discs are excellent to
close to drill-sown rows before the ^an^aresmall

dielo the rows and

194

FIVE ACRES

smaller bladed tools than the ordinary rectangular stole

^n £° T rk S f enor t0 **“* Sfl*

wL f J^ S hoe IS too heav y for convenient use and too
broad for deep penetration of the soil, for narrow inter-rows

Si ‘S hoe ”22 t0 .£ dicate P h *? lnste *d of it choose
SL °?' on h 9 e > . °" e ^th a narrow blade and a solid shank
into the conical hollowed end. (Chapter 35.)

Of the many styles of narrow and pointed hoes that do

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WT

•Pig 49 How top soil couditioa affects evaporation A, While soil b moist
to the surface evaporation o free B, C, When a dry layer is formed the
evaporating surface is lowered so the rate of evaporation is reduced.

good work perhaps the Warren or heart-shaped hoe is the
most generally useful Its point opens furrows for seeding
and the “ears" close them It is also better adapted than the
common hoe to dig shallow holes for transplanting, etc Be-
sides these pointed hoes are the scuffle (Dutch or push) hoes
or scarifiers which merely slice the surface and which, being
operated as one walks backward, leave an untrampled sur-
face They are specially useful after plants have grown too
large to admit of using the wheelhoe, for maintaining a
shallo w dust mulch and controling weeds toward the close
of the growing season

Hand weeding is nowadays far less laborious than for-

SOIL SURFACE MANAGEMENT

19S

merly. Hie tools and methods already discussed have re-
duced it and so have the many styles of hand weeders My
own favorite, the Hazeltme, is made of a piece of flat sted
bent somewhat like a crooked Anger and with one continu-
ous cutting surface divided mto Ave parts — a 1-inch end for
dose work among seedlings, a 2-inch “end joint” for thinning
plants in the row, and a 4-inch “middle joint,” also for
thinning to this distance and for quick cutting of the surface
beside the rows. The speed and skill with which this tool
can be worked is astonishing and satisfying.

Lang’s weeder is somewhat similar to the Hazdtine but is
much smaller and has a strap over the Angers to hold it
when not in use, thus leaving the hands free without having
to drop it and then pick it up

Another excellent tool for thinning and tr ansplanting is
the “onion weeder” which somewhat resembles a triangular
hoe with a relativdy broad blade and only a singln hand
hold

The Excdsior weeder, like a hand with Ave stout, stubby
but bent Angers and the Eureka, with three bent, stiff wires,
are more useful for loosening the surface soil near plants and
for scarifying than for actual weeding, though when us ed
before weeds appear they kill countless seedlings
If your garden is very small the Norcross cultivator (or
weeder ) in a limited way will take the place of the wheelhoe.
It consists of Ave adjustable bent steel prongs with flattened
blade-hke tips which readily penetrate and loosen the soil
between the rows When the center blade is removed the
tool may straddle the rows of seedlings and weed or culti-
vate on each side By sliding the top plate the width may
be varied to suit the work in hand

The long-handled Hazeltine weeder is not to be compared
with the short-handled one or with the narrow-biaded hoe
because it cannot be operated so accurately and is awk-
ward When used as a hoe. As a loosener of the surface inch
of soil and as a weed seedling killer it is also inferior to
the “Speedy Weeder and Scarifler,” a tool with a two-edged
narrow blade that may be used to cut either shallow or
rather deeply by either pushing or pulling it through the

196

FIVE ACRES

34

WEEDS

If the definition that a weed u a plant out of place, is accepted, al-
most any plant may become a weed On the other hand, perhaps
almost every weed may, m some way, become an economic plant

P H Rolfs,

In Subtropical Vegetable Gardening

W hen Solomon “went by the field of the slothful” and
noticed that weeds “covered the face thereof” he
“received instruction”, but as he failed to record what he
learned, later observers have been forced to draw their own
conclusions The result is endless books on weeds 1 Most of
these place the emphasis where it does not belong — on the

weeds' ... ,

Good fanners are not interested m weeds, but m good
farming They are not the people who fear that the Canada
or the Russian thistle or any other “bad weed" will put them
out of business On the contrary, they are so intent upon
growing profitable crops and improving their land that weeds
just have no chance to become annoying . , ,

Solomon noticed that the weeds thrived in the field of
“the slothful " If he had been a better observer, or perhaps
I should say recorder, he might also have included them*
manager, for weeds gam and maintain the upper ^prob;
ably just as often and as extensively where hard wort
ing fanner Mows unwise methods as w J» ere f t ^.^! 11 '2 7
or shiftless Clean fields are characteristic of good farmi g,

weedy ones of poor farming . . - tresses Dre -

So far as weeds are concerned good farming stressesp ^

nf weed seeds by wind, water, birds and animals It is often

WEEDS

197

cuse for allowing them to ripen their seeds on the place. If
they have not been destroyed by cultivation they should be
cut or pulled not later than their flowering stage Similarly,
in these days of state and government seed analyses there
is no excuse for buying bulk seed, especially of grasses and
dovers, without knowing it to be pure, or at least what
proportion of weed seeds it contains and therefore what
enemies and how many you are paying for when you admit
them to your place and thus lay the foundation for future
trouble'

If you will keep dearly in mind that, except in spedal
cases, weeds are crops which do not pay for themsdves but,
on the contrary, reduce the profit on desired crops with
which they compete — if you will keep this in mind you will
better understand the importance and practise of rational
farming methods About the only ways in which weeds may
be of benefit are to occupy fallow ground and thus prevent
washing of the soil and leaching of plant food, to save plant
food that might otherwise be wasted, to add humus to the
soil when plowed under, and to provide a “costless” cover
crop for orchards in which they are allowed to grow after
midsummer This last is decidedly inferior to a sown cover
crop because it is likely to produce and spread weed seeds that
give trouble in subsequent years

Weeds are responsible for losses in many ways, especially
in impairment of real estate value due to the appearance of
the property; to robbery of plant food taken from the soil,
to the cost of eradication — money wasted in work and re-
duced yield of crops among which they grew, to the lower-
ing of value of “seed crops” such as clover, grain and grass;
to the cost of removing their seeds from those of seed crops,
to propagation of plant diseases and the harboring of
that attack related crops, and to possible injury to live stock

Though weeds are grouped as annuals, biennials and
perennials they may all be destroyed most easily during the
first week of their existence Raking the surface half inch or
inch of soil is enough to dislodge and kill them by exposing
their roots to sun and air. In small gardens the steel hand
rake or the wheelhoe set with “sweeps,” rake teeth or 3-gang
cultivators is highly effective; on a field scale, the horse-

198

FIVE ACRES

drawn weeder does excellent work These tools when ran in
the direction of the rows (yes, and over the newly sown rows
themselves!) two or three days after sowing will destroy
millions of weed seedlings without appreciably damaging
the sown seeds The reason is that the weed seeds germinate
sooner than the sown ones because they are moist, whereas
the crop seeds are dry so must absorb water before they can
sprout After the crop plants appear cultivation can be given
only between the rows

The larger that weeds are allowed to grow the more labor
will be needed to destroy them, the greater will be the dam-
age they do and the more likely will they be to go to seed
When they do scatter their seed tihe trouble increases, for,
to quote an old adage, “one year’s seeding, makes seven
years’ weeding!” Mowing and hand pulling when in bloom
will prevent this disaster so far as annual and biennial weeds
are concerned Perennials, however, usually bob up serenely
the following year so must be fought in other ways.

Some species of perennials, such as quack-grass, Canada
thistle and milkweed that spread by underground stems can
be mastered only by constant cultivation or by “smother-
ing ” Both of these prevent the formation of foliage without
which the plants will starve to death In a small way
smothering may be done with tar-paper spread and anchored
over the infested areas On a large scale I have found hemp
sown broadcast and thickly to be satisfactory

Vine weeds such as hedge bindweed cannot fa e mastered in
this way because the plants would climb to the light and
thus continue to live Persistent and frequent cutovation is
the “main strength and stupidity way that I have dways
followed when I had this pest to deal with, but one that
“listens good” is to plow the mfested area m JaJe Augusts
early September and immediately sow rye and winter ve
broadcast thickly for a winter cover crop In spring plow
the rye when 6" or 8" high, harrow the ground and l seed ^to
mustard or Dwarf Essex rape to be

as tall for a sowing of buckwheat Should hedge bindweed
vines appear among the buckwheat this ^ ^
and the land again seeded to buckwheat, rye and vetch, it

5 £ SMC may be allowed to mature The cost of

WEEDS

199

seed and of planting all these crops will be more than offset,
first by starving out the bindweed and making the land safe
for cropping and second by incorporating large quantities of
vegetable matter in the soil (Chapter 29.)

With due respect to all the above practises and methods,
the greatest means of preventing weed troubles on a field
scale is crop rotation. (Chapter 32.) When land is sown to
the same crop year after year die weeds that naturally thrive
under the same conditions become entrenched pests Also
when hay lands begin to fail wild carrot, oxeye daisy, black-
eyed susan and buttercup hasten the process until the grass
is starved and the weeds are in full possession However,
crop rotation that includes at least one smother crop such as
grass or clover or a mixture of both followed by inter- tilled
crops such as com, potatoes or turnips, the weeds become
conspicuous because of their fewness— just one here and
there 1

Other ways by which weeds may be kept under control
are- 1, changes in tillage practises— deeper or shallower
plowing, harrowing or cultivating with different types of
tools or at different times of year, 2, frequent stirring of
bare soil surfaces with harrow or rake, 3, similar treatment
of crops in rows; 4, hand pulling of weeds missed by tillage
tools; 5, plowing land promptly after harvesting a crop and
either replanting or sowing a cover crop, 6, use of sheep and
goats to destroy weeds and brush and hogs to root out
perennial tubers and rootstocks, 7, by letting “your light so
shine before men that they, seeing your good works” may
follow your example, reduce the number of weeds on th»j r
places and thus have less seed to re-stock their places and
yoursl

200

FIVE ACRES

35

TOOLS

Our aim should be not how much strain our strength can stand, but
how great we can make that strength With such an aim we shall
incidentally and naturally find ourselves accomplishing more work than
if we aimed at the work itself Moreover, when such ideals are at-
tained, work instead of turning into drudgery tends to turn into play,
and the hue of life seem to turn from dull gray to the bright tints of
well-remembered childhood

Fisher and Fisk,

In How to lave

O ne of the greatest satisfactions you can have in fanning
and gardening is to use the right tool for each kind of
work Just as auto mechanics have special tools for saving
time so you ran have a special tool for each kind of garden
work Such tools lighten and speed up the work and thus
reduce both the time and the labor as well as add to the
pleasure of doing the work well .

Though a poor workman quarrels with his tools he is to
blame for having chosen poor ones On the other hand,
thoug h a skilled workman may be able to do a good job witn
poor tools he is the man who never buys any but the best
befcause he knows the satisfaction of owning, to say nothing
of using good ones No one better than he knows that a
good tool keeps its temper and thus helps bun to control to
If anyone should have good tools he is the owner of the

^Suppose that good tools do cost a little more than inferior
ones, the difference is, or should be, more than offset by
higher quality, keener edge, better service, longer We, and
theincreased satisfaction these characteristics insure Good

tools properly cared for will often last many times ft atfc J
as cheaper ones of the same kind They will wear outrather
than give out Their initial cost is therefore tos than two,
aSTmore of ths cheaper tied that hawi tea

npr iMtsarv to buy during the same period By the tun
goodS Will have worn out their prices will have been for-

TOOLS

201

gotten, but the satisfaction they will have given during a
term of years will always be pleasant to remember.

(hie of my trowels will illustrate these points. At the time
I bought it other trowels were selling at 25<5 to 50{S but I
paid 75{S (1) for mine because it was made of a better steel and
because its blade and handle are all of one piece of metal,
the handle being expanded to form a hollow cone in which a
short piece of hardwood is fitted and fastened with a pin.
Because of the quality of the metal and the construction this
tool can neither pull apart nor be broken by any effort that
a man can make when using it as a trowel should be used.
During the 17 years I have used this tool other trowels of
several styles have either pulled apart or broken, but this
one, though its blade has worn down about a third, is still
my favorite

Most cheap trowds are made by thrusting a metal shank
into a wooden handle which, being thus weakened, soon
either pulls apart or breaks A still cheaper style is made of
one piece of metal pressed into trowd-shape so part forms
the blade, and part the handle All specimens of this style
that I have seen are weak where handle ends and blade be-
gins They are therefore useful for only the lightest kinds
of work

The reason why I have discussed these trowds so fully
is because two of the methods of construction are used in
making various other hand tools, especially rakes, hoes and
weeders. When these are made by the conical construction
plan it is impossible to pull them apart and almost impos-
sible to break the shank by ordinary use, because the tools
are strongest at the point where greatest strength is needed.
But in the other style, when the shank is tapered and thrust
into the wooden handle, the wood is always weakened at the
point it should be strongest and it is almost certain to work
loose

Attempts to prevent such pulling apart and breakage by
pladng a ferule where metal and wood meet is at best a
makeshift way to offset a weakness. The only way to pre-
vent the woodland the metal pulling apart is to use a ferule
four or more inches long for rakes, hoes, etc —much more
for spades — and to pass a metal pin not only through it and

202

FIVE ACRES

the wood but also through the flattened metal shank of the
tool This forms a permanent union and positively prevents
separation of the vanous parts On tools of equal size such
construction is weaker than the cone style because die
amount of wood is reduced

Another objection to this style is that manufacturing costs
are higher than for common construction; hence selling
prices must be higher. However, such costs are offset by the
greater value and strength of such tools, for manufacturers
are careful to put better metal as well as workmanship into
tools of this type than into the cheaper styles Of the three
styles, other tilings being equal, the cone type is the strong-
est though not necessarily the most costly Spades, shovds,
forks and some other large hand tools are made after this
pattern Like all other tools so constructed they cost a trifle
more than the other kind but are well worth the difference

Much of the economy and success as well as pleasure of
gardening is derived through adequate tool equipment, yet
only too often people who supply only their own tables with
home grown fruits and vegetables manage to get along with
poorer and fewer tools than they really need If they think
at ail about the matter they silence their better judgment
by declaring that their gardens bring them no money, there-
fore they will put as little as possible into them This applies
as much to fertilizers, manures, seeds, plants and work as to

tools All mistakes I . .

These people fad to realize that they can doubtless mate
several times as much profit as market gardeners do out ot
the same crops, also that unlike these commercial growers
they have, or should have, no waste, for they can gather
each crop as soon as ready and sell it— all of it— without
deterioration of quality to the best market of “e World—
their own home tables' If they will credit their gardens^
only the cost of equal amounts of store stuff at market
prices, even though they disregard the freshness ; wind i war-
rants higher prices, they should more than justify their
w for Equate k,u?ment of. tools and accessories and
plan t food to assure abundant yields .

P Both because tools are costly and because

in good condition enhances the satisfaction in using th ,

TOOLS 203

tools should be kept in proper places Next to having them
exposed to the weather the worst place to keep them is
probably a cellar because of the almost invariable dampness
and the certainty of rust Some of mine have suffered in this
way because at first I had no other place to keep them.
Several of my friends store their tools beneath their ve-
randas, the floors of which are high enough above ground to
serve as shed roofs Other friends have tool rooms or sheds
or use their garages. All such places are good, provided they
are dry and airy

One point seldom emphasized is that an owner is more
likely to take care of good tools than of poor ones A case
that came under my observation illustrates this Years ago
I visited a Maryland farmer who had just bought a trans-
planting machine for, I think, $150 He kept it m a shed and
maintained it (like his other tools) in good condition by
timely care About 12 years later when I again visited him
the madune was still giving him good service. During these
years, he told me, one of his neighbors had had three trans-
planters whose terms of usefulness had been shortened be-
cause the sky was their only coverlet'

No matter how or where stored, tools should always be
cleaned after being used, especially before being put in
place The rough earth may be scraped off with a flat stick
and the finer particles rubbed off with burlap or some other
coarse fabric. Whether or not the tool is soon to be used it is
a good practise, especially in damp weather and before
winter sets in, to rub all unpainted metal parts with an oily
rag before hanging it up. Thus a thin film of oil is smeared
on the surfaces and rust is prevented The oil drained from
the crank case of an auto is good enough

It is an excellent plan to overhaul the tools at least once
a year, preferably as soon as the gardening season has
closed At this time worn and broken parts may be dis-
covered and replaced It is also a favorable time to paint the
wooden and metal parts that do not come in actual contact
with the soil Instead of sticking to the colors applied by the
manufacturers it is highly desirable to use only one color or
a combination of colors so that all the tools one owns will
have personal distinction. Whatever color scheme is adopted

204

FIVE ACRES

it should be such as will “stand out” well — orange, red,
yellow or light blue — against the natural colors of the gar-
den Poor ones are green, brown, blade and dark blue
Branding is also a good idea. Branding irons cost little but
last “forever” and their brands last as long as the tools

As part of the overhauling the tools should be sharpened,
for much of the efficiency of spades, hoes, scythes, sickles,
lawn mowers and pruning tools depends upon the keenness
of their working parts With the large tools, sharpening is
best done by an emery wheel or a flat file These are too
rough for the finer edged tools such as knives and shears An
oil stone is best for them After each tool is sharpened it
should be rubbed with the oily rag, especially along the
newly sharpened parts

One of the greatest ways to waste time is to store a
miscellaneous assortment of hand tools all huddled in a dark
corner, for when so mixed desired ones are hard to find In
order to save time every individual tool should have its own
place Among the many satisfactory ways to arrange long
handled garden tools are racks with holes bored for the
handles to stand in erect; double hooks for spades, shovels
and forks, and single hooks to hold up the handles of such
tools as lawn mowers, wheelhoes, and wheelbarrows These
last must be provided with a cleat on the floor to prevent
their escaping from their moorings Small tools such as
shears, trowels, dibbles and weeders may be assigned places
on the wall and held by various home-made devices The
one place not to keep them is a drawer, unless each tool has
its own especial compartment The drawer should be well

ventilated to prevent rust

In order to make a quick check-up of tools to see that
each is m its place and thus save time, perhaps also money,
is to paint on the wall, in the cupboard and the drawer the
exact position and form of each tool m some color mat con-
trasts with that of the tool When the design is made larger
than the tool it will show at a glance whether or not the tool
is in place so that, if necessary, search may be made torit

Many, but not all, of the garden supply stores cany weu
chosen stocks of standard and nationally advertised too
Thus they may be of far more distinguished service to

t

TOOLS

205

ginners than most local stores that handle only limited lists
of ordinary equipment, for there varied assortments may
be examined before purchases are made

From what has already been written the importance of
this personal selection can hardly be over-estimated, for it
is greatly to be regretted that clerks, especially the “extras”
employed during the rush season are not always as well
posted as they should be on gardening operations or on the
quality of materials, construction, workmanship, advantages
and often positive disadvantages of many tools they offer for
sale. It is therefore advisable not to place too implicit confi-
dence in the statements of the salesman To avoid such risks
it is a good plan to buy tools during the off season for then
the derk is probably one regularly employed in the depart-
ment and therefore likdy to be well posted

Some points to bear in mind with respect to certain tools
and implements not already discussed are well worth con-
sidering For instance, avoid combination tools such as rake
and hoe mounted back to back and attached to the one
handle Though the salesman may dedare that you get more
for your money because you are buying two tools for the
price of one you will really be getting less and will be adding
to your work when using them, for not only is there no sense
in toting one while you are using the other (I) but such
tools are usually made of metal so poor that they are likely
to break as wdl as do inferior work

Stall worse is the double edged pruning saw. It is not only
too light for heavy work and too heavy for light work but
with it you are almost sure to do more damage than with any
other tool, for it will often tear the bark of trees in un-
expected places and even the hand that uses it!

By keeping the points discussed in mind it should be <5 3%
for anyone to trust himself in a garden supply store to
choose the tools and other necessary items listed in the ap-
pendix

Every year new tools, modifications and improvements on
old ones are introduced Seldom are they found in the g ar r fr^
supply stores sooner than the third year after they are first
advertised because it usually fakes about that long for the
public to prove their worth Until this has been done the

206

five Acres

stores are loath to list them So it is advisable to be on the
lookout for such tools as advertised in the farm and garden
magazines and to try those that promise to be labor-, or
time-savers

To judge by my experience it pays to buy at least some of
them In any case it is well to send for circulars and catalogues
offered by makers or introducers so as to be the better pre-
pared to yield to the temptation to buyl

36

RE-MAKING A NEGLECTED ORCHARD

The loss due to insect attack may be reduced materially by the
adoption of proper methods of prevention and control In many cases,
the program to adopt involves no direct fighting, such as spraying, but
simply the shaping of farm, garden, or orchard practise along lines un-
favorable to the insects concerned— such matters as rotation of crops,
or cleaning fields of weeds Today’s warfare against insects strives
towards prevention as well as cure

Walter C O'Kane,

In Tnpirtotu Insects

W hen a new farm is to be developed from an old one
an important problem likely to arise is how to treat
the fruit trees already existing on the property As a rule
they have been systematically neglected, abused or mis-
managed for years and thus have supplied conditions for
the spread of pests such as San Jose scale, borers, blight,
canker and kindred enemies As consequences the trees are
full of diseased, dying and dead wood, interfering branches
and watersprouts The lack of cultivation has also permitted
bushes and rank weeds to dispute possession of the ground
with the trees and such vines as poison ivy and Virginia
creeper have embraced the opportunity to clamber up the
trunks to light and air

On one property bought several years ago by a city man
was an orchard which would fit the above description. The
trees had been neglected though not maltreated, and tne

RE-MAKING A NEGLECTED ORCHARD 207

place was so choked with undergrowth that his friends sug-
gested he cut down the trees and save the berry bushes!
During the previous five years this orchard had produced
an average of less than half a barrel of apples to the tree!

Fortunately the new owner called in a competent orchard-
ist who prescribed treatment which amply paid for being
put in practise; for during the following six years (after
renovation) the orchard averaged three barrels annually to
the tree Thus an orchard which had never paid the former
owner became one of the most profitable areas on the place.

In another case “the trees were in such bad condition”
that the advisability of cutting them down and planting a
“real orchard” was considered seriously; but “it was finally
decided to see what could be done to bring them back into
usefulness ” The first two years after revamping the trees
averaged less than a peck of fruit each, but during the next
four years they bore about two barrels to the tree as an
annual average As the fruit sold at an average of $4. a
barrel it paid a fair profit on the investment of time in
renovation.

Such cases indicate what may be done with apparently
almost hopeless fruit trees They also emphasize the im-
portance of securing the services of a competent orchardist
to advise whether or not it will pay to attempt reclamation
not only of individual trees but of orchards; for often
though individual trees may be brought back to usefulness
there may be so few in a given area that the cost of annual
management — on account of the area to be handled — might
be disproportionate to the possible money returns. Nothing
but careful examination of both the individual trees and of
the area as a whole by a man familiar with orcharding can
decide what would be advisable in any specific case

Such cases as these must be kept distinct from those dealt
with by the tree surgeon. The deciding factor in an orchard
problem should always be the money cost and return
whereas tree surgery cases are influenced by sentimental
pictorial, historical or similar reasons — not at all by the
sordid question “will it pay in dollars and cents?”

Before calling in such an orchard specialist you, as owner
or prospective buyer of a property may apply the following

208

FIVE ACRES

suggestions to your problem so as to form your own opinion

"A- 11 m ? y pay t0 atte «S XSK

After having formed this opinion will be soon enough to seek
adv,ce - Eyen where you may decide upon destruction

SiAt« CCS i* nd Ule ,P lantm fi of new ones, you should usually
not take action until after consultation because the specialist
may discover advantages which may have escaped your
observation On the other hand, should you think favorably
of reclamation the specialist may advise destruction be-
°‘ disadvantages that you have not noted!

When decision is made to reclaim, die specialist can not
only indicate how the work with the trees should be done,
but how the whole area should be managed In fact, he can
prescribe a sc ^ c d u ^ c of treatment to cover a series of years
Thus his advice should enable you to improve the condition
of the trees by pruning and spraying, to strengthen the
growth, avoid trouble by cultivation and how to handle
superior crops of fruit

In the same ways as he makes his superficial (or pre-
liminary ) survey you may well consider the following
points. Neglected peach trees older than five years are
usually so badly infested with borers, yellows, little peach,
rosette or other pests that it will not pay to work them over
They had usually better be pulled out and the ground re-
jmcnated by green manuring for at least two years before
again being devoted to orchard However, don’t be too
hastyt On one farm that I bought there were about a dozen
peach trees “on their last legs" and at least 10 years old As
they had been planted for home use and were of choice
varieties that covered a season of two months I overhauled
them The result was they supplied the family until the new
orchard started to bear, by which time only about half of
them were left They were not worth saving for “making
money” but they prevented our buying poorer qualify
peaches from the neighboring commercial orchards
Cherries, plums and crab-apples cost so much to pick and
the former two are so affected by brown rot, black knot and
curculio that usually only enough trees should be saved to
supply the needs of the family and of others living on the
place

RE-MAKING A NEGLECTED ORCHARD 209

Some varieties of pears are so subject to fire-blight that
they are soon killed Among others are some ■which may be
so full of branches killed by this disease that when they are
removed there will be little left But so great is the vitality
of pear trees that new wood may often be made to develop
merely by cutting out the dead branches Therefore, trees
that are known to be of good varieties may often be saved
to supply home needs for several to many years.

However, when there are many pear trees on a property,
especially when they appear to be vigorous and free from
blight they are probably Kieffer, the poorest variety of the
list still carried by nurserymen This variety may be identi-
fied by the branches which, in bearing trees bend in more or
less pronounced arcs — much more than do most other varie-
ties Generally the trees bear heavily every year and the
fruit finds a fair sale at moderate prices so they may be
worth saving as a source of revenue, not primarily as a
means of enhancing the pleasures of the table, even though
the canned fruit is passable — when there is none else!

Whenever a branch affected by fire-blight is removed
both the tool and the wound should be well sterilized by
wiping with a rag or a sponge kept wet with a solution of
corrosive sublimate (mercuric chloride) made by dissolving
a tablet of the chemical in a pint of warm water The dis-
solving must be done in a glass, crockery, or wooden vessel,
not in any metal receptacle Because of its highly poisonous
character both the solution and the supply of tablets should
be kept under lock and key to prevent children and animal^
accidentally getting it Also it is a good plan to keep an
emetic and a supply of dried egg-white, powdered milk or other
albumenoid within handy reach, the former to cause v omit -
ing, the latter to neutralize the poison after vomiting has been
induced Skim milk and fresh egg-white are also good In
every case call a doctor immediately I

The one outstanding fruit likely to be found in orchard
blocks and to be profitable is the apple, esp ecia lly if the
varieties are few, in goodly number and in commercial de-
mand So far as home needs are concerned it is better to
have 10 or even 20 varieties which ripen more or less suc-
cessionally and are in season from mids ummer until April

210

FIVE ACRES

May or even June The first things to determine, therefore,
are what varieties predominate, what others are included in
the list and the variety name of each individual tree

To supply the home it may be worth while to allow trees
to live even though it will not pay to do much work on them
or when they are the few survivors of a formerly much more
populous orchard But from the standpoint of income, indi-
vidual trees that have badly decayed trunks and limbs are
so likely to break down that it will usually not pay to do
much work on them Often it would be more profitable to
cut such trees down and convert their trunks and main limbs
into fireplace wood.

When an orchard has many blanks after the removal of
such decrepit specimens, even though it may be feasible to
rejuvenate the remaining trees the number left may be too
email to permit of profitable returns from the area; for the
animal cost of management must be considered in terms of
area rather than in number of trees The cost of managing
a 40% stand is more than twice that of handling a 1005 k
stand

In cases of partial stand it will not pay to replant vacan-
cies because manv of the new trees will fail through im-
poverished soil, because those new trees that might survive
would probably require 10 years to reach profitable age by
which time many of the old trees might have disappeared
This would leave a lot of blanks to be filled with still
younger trees An orchard so planted would be both un-
sightly and unsatisfactory to manage

Individual trees that may be readily worked over to other
varieties are those which have sound trunks and limbs even
though many of the branches may be interfering and there
may be quantities of watersprouts The presence of these
latter in abundance is a good index that the trees are vigor-
ous and that the soil is at least fairly well supplied with

Pl TreS°with numerous dead branches are not necessarily
doomed especially where watersprouts in fbundance ing
cate vigor Such branches may have been killed by San Jose
or oyster-shell scale through neglect to spray with proper

materials

RE-MAKING A NEGLECTED ORCHARD 211

After this dead wood and other unnecessary branches have
been cut out and after the rough bark has been scraped off
the trunks, collected in sheets placed to catch it so it may
be burned to get rid of insect eggs and cocoons, the trees —
provided they are dormant — should be given a thorough
drenching with winter-strength lime-sulphur solution or a
miscible oil Never should such materials be used later than
the earliest swelling of the buds or they will kill the newly

at* h.

Eg SO How decay follows through the heartwood of
a limb-stub to the heartwood of the maiu trunk

forming foliage This dormant spraying should cover every
part of the tree — twigs, branches, limbs and trunk It will
therefore destroy not only scale and other insects but also
the germs of many diseases

As to the actual operation of pruning, one precaution is
necessary: When a large branch must be removed always
make a cut from beneath at a point a foot or more from its
attachment to the larger limb or the trunk from which it
springs When the saw sticks (or “binds”) remove it and
make a second cut from above so as to meet the first Be-
fore the cuts join, however, the branch will drop ofi This
will prevent tearing the bark and the wood from the sup-
porting branch or trunk. Now the stub must be removed

212

FIVE ACRES

as close as possible to the flow of sap in the remaining
branch or trunk The closer this is, even though the wound
may be larger, the quicker will be the healing
In all renovation the dead wood should be cut out first
It is worse than useless because it evaporates water, harbors
insects, impedes entrance of light and air, spreads disease
and interferes with spraying and harvesting
Sometimes the removal of dead wood is all that is neces-

sary the first season Usually, however, more or less inter-
fering branches should be cut out Often it is desirable to
leave well placed watersprouts on the mam branches and the
trunk so as to fill in gaps and in time form new limbs
Therefore it is a good plan to leave most, or at least many,
watersprouts during the first season so as to serve as “safety
valves” for the excess plant food and vigor which must find
vent after the pruning referred to is done Unless this is
done new supplies of watersprouts may be expected
When new, if they appear where they are not wanted,
they are easily removed during late May or early June, while
they are still succulent At that time they pull off and new
ones do not appear at the same points, whereas if allowed to
mature (become woody) they must be cut off, only to be re-
placed by new ones A boy of 10 or 12 can do the putting o
In general, trees which already have wdl formed heads
of medium height should be pruned only moderately so as
to maintain their low-beadedness and thus favor spraying
and harvesting Very tall trees, however, with few or no
branches low down on the trunks or main limbs should have
many small branches m the top thinned out so as to force
the trees to develop watersprouts nearer to the ground in
two or three years new branches may be chosen among
these sprouts and the undesired ones cut out Ons m
is usually better practise than the more common one o
“dehorning” or cutting off large branches m the hope ot

developing new heads on the trees

Until recently orchardists and other tree speoah
taLd paratmg large woaods wtfh van® maerab-
shellac, white lead, creosote, tar and soodry
oreparations Recent investigations, however, sno

KTof 111656 are p0Sltlvely mim ’

213

FRUIT TREE PRUNING

whatever and still others of doubtful utility. Small wounds
usually heal in a single season and wounds 2" in diameter
rarely require more than two years For large ones, grafting-
wax made rather soft appears to be as satisfactory as any-
thing for keeping the edges from drying out and thus favor-
ing the development of new tissue over the wounds
If an orchard is located on a poor, light soil or on sod,
if the trees are making slow growth, as indicated by short
terminal twigs, and if the leaves are yellowish and small,
probably heavy pruning and nitrogenous fertilizers will pro-
duce good results Care must be taken, however, to discon-
tinue these practises before they produce too vigorous growth
or unfruitfulness When diagnosis indicates that fertilizers
are needed, the materials applied should be approximately
as shown in the Appendix whether used singly or in combina-
tion Doubtless nitrate of soda or some other quickly avail-
able nitrogenous fertilizer is most likely to give conspicuous
benefit. To get most eSect it should be well worked into the
soil as far out as the limbs spread and just before the buds
begin to burst In peach orchards nitrogen has most con-
sistently given satisfactory returns, though potash is often
notably beneficial on light, sandy soils.

37

FRUIT TREE PRUNING

Je weniger wir ea schnaden haben am Baum, desto ges under bleibt er
und desto schdner entwickeln ach Fruchte
. Karl Koopmann

[Translation The less a tree is cut, the sounder it will be, and the
better its fruits ]

W hen you read the above quotation or its translation
you may have wondered why I should think it neces-
sary to write a chapter on pruning' What would you thinl-
if you read it on the title page of my 420-page book. Prin-
ciples and Practise of Pruning >

“The less a tree is cut” emphatically does not mean that

214

FIVE ACRES

the more it is allowed to grow “as Nature intended” the bet-
ter I Even the most casual observation shows that without
assistance Nature develops branches that not only become
useless but sooner or later prove a menace to the health and
life of the tree 1

It is often said that Nature makes no mistakes Perhaps so
— from her standpoint! But she is apparently just as much
interested in producing a sour, hard, inedible, little crab-
apple as a luscious Mackintosh or a Fall Pippin 1 Perhaps
she is also as well pleased with her methods of developing
trees that will break down because of weak construction or
the entrance of decay as if she built them on sound en-
gineering principles and protected them from internal rot
If our human opinions differ from hers it may be because of
our seliish bias' But if, as we are told, we are “lords of crea-
tion” why should we not "lord it” over her as much in the
construction and care of trees as in the selection of varieties

that please our pdlates?

^ In Nature, plants grow thickly, each crowds the others,
■& so that superfluous individuals and branches are destroyed
' Under cultivation the distances at which plants are set and
the relatively greater abundance of available plant food
often increase bath number and growth of branches, so un-
less pruned many more would continue to live than would
be “pruned off” by Nature's crude methods Hence the neces-
sity of our using improved methods of pruning to remove
this superfluous wood, or, better, to prevent its formation
and to favor the better placed limbs
Methods of preventing damage are so simple and effective
that anybody may apply them and as most of them cost noth-
ing but a little tune there is no reason why they should be
neglected They all depend upon a workmg knowledge of
the underlying principles of plant life and growth By under
standing these even the veriest tyro may discover or m-
dentify trouble in its incipiency literally it m the
bud”-—often years before it would become actually threat
aung to the well-being of the trees
Prevention of damage should begin wththe «PJ* “ Q
trees from the nursery or with the seedlings tha
55 store Nature hdi som. to seeds Before ptatmg to

215

FRUIT TREE PRUNING

former, every root as thick as a lead pencil and every
scraped, broken, mangled or otherwise injured root should
be shortened back to sound wood. Best cuts are made with
a sharp pruning knife, though a hand shear is useful, pro-
vided both its blade and its holding jaws are keenly sharp-
ened so as to make clean cuts — not chewed or crushed
wounds Quick healing follows smooth cuts.

When the tree is planted it is imperative to remove at least
50% of the top, of all except unbranched yearling trees.
(Chapter 39 and later pages of this one ) These “whips” or
“switches” should never be cut because they are the
“leaders” or main trunks of the trees Among commercial
orchardists 75% of two-year and older nursery trees is
pruned off immediately after planting Though to the novice
this treatment may seem “heroic” it is based upon the
sound principle that a balance between top and root must be
reestablished or the tree will surdy suffer, if not die. In any
case where this pruning is not done the tree will be slow to
recover.

The way to reestablish this necessary balance is to reduce
the amount of branch area. Professional tree planters and
especially commertial fruit growers who follow this practise
rardy lose as much as one tree in a hundred planted.

When making this reduction of top it is highly advisable
to govern the cutting by the positions and sizes of the various
branches. First, note which are the sturdiest, next the dis-
tances between these on the trunk When they are 12" or
more apart a stronger tree may be devdoped than where
they are doser together and far stronger than when they
are in opposite pairs or in bunches Also a far better bal-
anced tree may be devdoped if these three, four, or five
strong, well separated branches point in as many different
directions; so that, if viewed from above they would look
like the spokes of a whed with the trunk as the center.
Never cut these until the last.

The first branches to cut off entirdy should be the puniest
and the poorest placed The only puny branches that should
ever be saved are such as are well placed and point in the
desired directions, even though a thriftier branch near by
but badly placed must be sacrificed The puny branch will

216

FIVE ACRES

probably develop well when the competition with the other
branches is reduced by pruning
If at any time two branches are placed so close together
and on the same side of the trunk that they would interfere
with each other the one more poorly placed (usually the
lower one) should be cut off completely, though sometimes
it would be advisable to let it remain when its position is
farther up or down from the next desired branch above or
below After puny and interfering branches have been re-
moved so that only the strongest remain these latter may be
shortened from 30% to 60% so as to help reestablish the
balance between top and root
Whether or not the main stem or “leader” should be cut
is a disputed question For many years my conviction is
that it should not be because, when this is done, new
brandies are almost certain to form in a duster near the
the top and thus lay the foundation of one of the commonest
and most distressing tragedies of tree growing — the break-
down of the top due to the splitting of the Y-crotch or
crotdies formed by the branches at this point (Chapter 39).

The lowest branch of apple, pear and sweet cherry trees
should be 30" to 36" from the ground, those of peach, sour
cherry and plum, 18" to 21" because low headed trees are
less likely to be injured by high winds, the fruit to be blown
off and less difficult to reach at picking time, much of it be-
ing gathered direct from the ground or with only short la -
ders Then, too, injury from sun scald of the trunks is re-
duced, so is the difficulty and cost of harvesting an

SP During the first few years judicious pruning with the knife
will save not only much time and labor with saw and top-
pers in later years but will build stronger, more symmetnc^
specimens than by any other treatment Still better, n pp g
undesired buds and soft mch-Iong shoots will save even
knife work ' The same principles apply to each frame s b
as to the development of the main towk-ywjj s «
branches far apart and pointing in different ^ectums, J
cept that on the under sides of the frame lunbs
should be allowed to develop because it would be too 1 ”
shaded by the mam branch Better the watchful eye than

218

FIVE ACRES

year With age the spurs become gnarled and crooked, but,
if healthy may be as productive as younger spurs
Cherries bear much of their fruit on spurs, but because the
terminal bud is almost always a branch bud the spurs arc
relatively straight Most of the other buds on the spur pro-
duce blossoms, though an occasional one may dc\clop a
branch spur Blossom buds are also borne near the bases
of annual growths of the previous year.

The plum and the apricot bear their blossom buds partly
on spurs and partly on young growths, but in more varying
proportions than with the cherry
The peach is different. It produces some blossoms on wiry
twigs on the larger branches, but these growths live for only
a few years By far the largest part of the blossoms arc
borne, one on each side of the pointed branch buds on
growths of the previous season They can be easily recog-
nized, first because of their position and second because of
their roundness Sometimes the bud between the pairs just

mentioned is a blossom bud .

Never prune off or break the spurs of any fruit tree unless
there are too many or unless failing, because a spur removed is
gone forever On the other hand, always cut back peach shoots
severely — often 50 % to 75 %. Unless you do the tree will cv
tend farther and farther out each year and become more an
more likely to break because of the increased leverage Again,
such annual pruning will concentrate the fruit bearing area in
the reduced space and thus also. reduce the amount of
thinning that must be done m midsummer.

The quince is again different It bears its blossoms at the
ends of new growths that spring from buds that ha\p win-
tered over. Pruning for fruit, therefore, cons.Msin Ufp nr
the tops of the bushes fairly open and reducing both the
number of annual growths and shortening the remai g

3 Though many 'trees die prematurely n b ^

or in s ect attack, probably the commonest cat w ■ ‘

219

FRUIT TREE PRUNING

frame or main branches so dose together they either pull
against or shade each other until they break down or must
be removed In the former case the tree is ruined at once,
in the latter decay is often admitted to the heartwood which
is steadily eaten away until the interior is perhaps hollow
Hence the importance of training young trees so as both to
avoid such disasters and to develop branches free from fault
as to position with respect to the trunk and to each other.

The home orchards of my boyhood were developed ac-
cording to the principle formulated by Downing, namdy,
“Every fruit tree grown in the open orchard or garden as a
common standard, should be allowed to take its natural
form, the whole efforts of the pruner going no further than
to take out all weak and crowded brandies ” Many of the
trees so developed by my grandfather and great undes be-
tween 1850 and 1875 are still bearing, even though since the
passing of these men, they have not been as well tended by
later owners

In contrast with such records tens of thousands of trees
trained on the “vase-form” or “open center” plan, or because
nurserymen cut the “leaders” have broken down at a quarter
the age of these veterans In such cases the branches having
developed m dusters pull against each other and break
down or when allowed to develop to bearing age before re-
moval usually leave wounds through which decay enters the
heartwood as already noted and thus precedes, in fact, as-
sures, breakdown.

Removal of large limbs is always a menace to the well-
being of trees. The only limbs larger than 1" in diampfe r
that should be removed are dead ones, those so badly dis-
eased that they cannot be saved, or those broken by ac-
ddent. Even the removal of 1" branches may be avoided by
proper training while the trees are younger than five years,
and most of them during the first three yearsl

Because of the heavy losses of trees and differences of
opinion as to what are sound principles of tree training
various experiment stations have conducted investigations
to determine correct ways to train young trees and have
reported findinp in bulletins. One such undertaken by the
Illinois station is reported in a 125-page bulletin (No. 376)

220

FIVE ACRES

from which the following conclusions have been chosen and
condensed The italics are mine
Growers attribute death to various causes, but do not
realize the part that pruning plays directly or indirectly
Wounds are an important factor in death and the initiation
of the unprofitable period They are often attributable to
the way in which the tree was headed Poor heads tn trees
novo mature are due to the severe headmg-back cut gtven
when the young tree was a whip Efforts should be made to

Fig SI Group method of disbudding yearling "whips” of
trees Left, first season’s growths, right, the same P / Fr ^ D hotos)
placed branches being saved to make the mam framework (From pn l

produce frameworks in which equilibnuin Trill be main
tained as nearly as possible, especially late in the trees me
when wounds are likely to do most damage
In forming the framework, very narrow angles an
excessive development of one mam branch are to be avoid^
as these factors lead to splitting of the bead VetoU!*
mg of branches is desirable to avoid “smothering of w

221

FRUIT TREE PRUNING

leader Problems of training are greatly simplified by start-
ing the framework branches by disbudding to groups of
buds, thus avoiding the dominance and the sharp forks that
result from severe heading back. Uniformity is also secured
among the main branches which are subordinate to the
central leader. To train trees by disbudding the following
steps are recommended by W. A Ruth and V. A Kelley,
authors of the bulletin

Of the three new methods of heading reported in the bul-
letin disbudding to groups of buds is considered the best and
is therefore recommended in preference to the others.
(Fig 51.) The steps are based not only upon the data
recorded, but also upon incidental observations made as the
study progressed.

First season Use vigorous one-year whips which have
not been allowed to dry out before planting. [Fall buying
and heehng-in may be necessary to assure plumpness as
storage too often shrivels the trees M G K ] Incline them
slightly toward the prevailing wind If they are tilted so far
that the lower side becomes an underside, shoot develop-
ment will be discouraged in that direction but will start to
grow through the tree

Just before growth starts disbud the whips with a sharp
knife to groups of three or four consecutive buds, each
group at tiie height where a frame-branch is wanted Inter-
vals between groups should be about 8" from center to
center [I prefer 12" or more because greater strength is
thus assured. M G K ]

The whip should not be cut back Let the tree grow un-
disturbed throughout the entire season.

Second season At the beginning of the second growing
season choose one branch at each height for the permanent
framework Select for uniformity of diameter and length
(to secure balance) , for proper direction (location in a spiral),
and for an angle suitable to the variety [a wide angle makes
a stronger limb connection with the tiunk than a narrow
one, which is likely to break down M G K J The laterals
left on drooping varieties like Jonathan and Winesap, should
have a more upright direction than on upright varieties like
Ydlow Transparent and Delicious In any case the angles

222

FIVE ACRES

should not be so dose that bark will later be caught in the

Afttf “ s ' laHy m bel ™» 200 ■*

0rbead back Py all vigorous laterals not to
oe left for the permanent framework Thar removal is
sometimes the better treatment because it establishes the
permanent framework branches at once and avoids the

n “"“S dominance gradually It also avoids
the difficulties which result from heading back However
pruning vigorous trees heavily at this time induces such suc-
culent growth in the laterals left for the permanent frame-
work that they may be bent out of shape by wind and in the
most upright varieties the angles between some of the frame-
work branches and the trunk may become too acute
Short horizontal laterals which will not compete with
those selected for the framework, should be left to increase
the diametei of the trunk as much as possible It is not
necessary or desirable to head bade the laterals to be left

permanently If they are left alone, they will become
branches coordinate with the central leader, an important
step m the easy development of the modified central-leader
tree

Third season At the beginning of the third growing sea-
son replace any poor laterals with better ones which may
have developed from buds that remained dormant or from
shoots that grew poorly during the first season This may
be necessary on poorly grown trees, on trees that have been
mistreated before planting, or on trees that have been poorly
planted If necessary, higher laterals may be selected for
the permanent framework at this time

Remove any vigorous misplaced shoots. Let all other
growth remain It is seldom necessary to head back for
balance, but occasional laterals may be removed for this
purpose

Laterals in the upper part of the tree should be thinned
out if the tree tends to become top heavy The central leader,
however, should not be removed or headed back because it
is to be used as the highest branch in the main framework.

It is to be kept equal in size with those lower down, pref-
erably by removing laterals

223

GRAFTING FRUIT TREES

Fourth and Following Seasons Prune as little as possible.
By this time the three to five main framework branches
should have established themselves, and only an occasional
vigorous new shoot should need removal It may be neces-
sary to remove a few branches to keep the tree balanced.
Since the central leader is to be the highest main framework
branch, coordinate m size with those lower down, its vigor
should be reduced, if it tends to outgrow the lower branches,
by removing some of its laterals

38

GRAFTING FRUIT TREES

When varieties are untrue to name there is nothing to do but to
puQ the trees out or top-work them In many places it would be just
as satisfactory from a commercial standpoint to pull the trees out and
start over agam as it is to top-work Circumstances, however, alter
cases, and if the owner does the work and looks after the trees he may
succeed where an employee would fail

Samuel Fraser,

In American Fruits

anybody may succeed with grafting, there is nothing
mysterious or difficult about it In fact, it is so simple
that any boy can be at least 90% successful when he follows
the simple directions.

Trees already bearing good fruit need not be grafted un-
less one desires them also to bear other varieties It will not
pay to graft very large, old trees because their trunks and
main limbs are often unsound and may break m a few
years Unless they bear good fruit they should be cut down.

The trees to graft are those that bear worthless fruit but
are sound and comparatively young Far better make them
useful than continue worthless When such trees are to be
grafted over do only part of the work in any one year. If
it is done all at one time many of the grafts will fail to
“take” and the tree may either develop innumerable water-
sprouts and suckers or it may die Graft only a third, a

grafting fruit trees

225

■Fie 52 Cleft grafting a, saons, b, cleft prepared in stock, c, scions in-
” deft dTgraft wkred, e single soon showing wedge shape and
positron 1 of lowest bS, f, mallks’g, improved grafting iron.

are made drop them in water or hold them in your mouth
until ready to place them m the stocks, to prevent the cut
edges from drying In stocks less than 1" m (hameter one
sdon is sufficient, in larger ones two are desirable.

Success depends more upon the proper adjustment of the

226

FIVE ACRES

scion to the stock and the thorough covering of all wounded
surfaces with grafting-wax than upon all other points put
together.

Place the sdon so the lowest bud faces outward and is
practically on a line with the top of the stock Be particular
to have die bark on the outer side of the scion cross the
bark of the stock at a very slight angle — almost, but not
quite, a straight line The reason for this is that all growth
in our common temperate climate trees occurs m the
“cambium” layer of cells — the layer thinner than the thin-
nest tissue paper immediately beneath the inner bark but
outside the outer layer of wood — between the bark and the
wood*

S ucces sful grafting depends upon the fusion of the cells
of this layer in the sdon with those of the same layer in the
stock In order to have the sdon held firmly in place gently
ease out the point of the wedge of the grafting tool, thus
allowing the edges of the slit in the stock to close on the
sdon which must not be allowed to shift

To finish the operation fill all cracks and cover all wounds
with grafting-wax, mainly to keep out the air and water, but
also to favor successful union of stock and scion

Sdons that “take” will usually start to grow in two or
three weeks The only attention the stocks will need dur-
ing the first season is to prevent sprouts from growing on
fhpm , thus stealing food from the grafts and developing
undesired branches Should insects, for instance, plan ic ,
attack the new green growths thqr should be destroyed as
promptly as possible as they will weaken if not kill tne

f j

When both sdons grow (where there are two “ » stock)
they should be allowed to complete their first season i with
out check because they thus tend quickly t
wound in the stock In the spring of the second 1 y
to poorer on. near to base*. aa U rto* * '.***»*

wax has chipped off the old wound

wax on it also btt near them

When trees are left with grass, straw o

227

GRAFTING FRUIT TREES

there is risk of losing them. Mice make nests in such ma-
terial and when other food fails during winter they gnaw
the bark, for several inches up and down, at and below the
ground surface and often all the way around. Rabbits do
similar damage but higher up on the trunks and without
reference to anything lying around the trees The result is
deat h unless measures are taken to repair the damage

Other injuries that often lead to death of trees are due to
sub-zero weather which splits the bark, to body-blight, a
form of fire-blight that destroys foliage, twigs and branches
of apple, pear and quince; and to collar-rot, a disease of un-
certain origin that attacks some varieties of apples (espe-
cially Grimes and Tompkins King) at and just below the
ground level

Mouse damage is easy to prevent in three ways: 1. Keep
the ground bare for at least a yard around the bases of the
tr unks 2. Mound up and pack earth 6" or 8" high around
the trunks just before winter. 3. Encase the base of each
trunk for IS" to 18" with Y/' mesh galvanized hardware
doth (wire netting), making sure that the lower end of each
is buried 3" in the earth. A combination of these methods will
make assurance triply sure You invite damage, if not dis-
aster, when you do not take such precautions.

Rabbit injury may be prevented by swabbing the trunks
and lower limbs if less than 3' from the ground at the ap-
proach of winter, using one ounce of red pepper thoroughly
mixed with two or three pounds of lard or other soft grease
When applying this mixture use rubber gloves to prevent
the severe smarting which the pepper will cause if worked
into the skin

Should trees become girdled do not doom them; they may
yet be saved if the work of salvage is done promptly In the
spring, as soon as the snow has melted enough so die bases
of the trunks can be seen, examine each tree to determine
which ones have been injured. If the mouse or rabbit in-
juries are less than a couple of inches wide (up and down)
and extend less than half way around the trunk, trim their
edges smoothly with a sharp knife and cover the wounds
with grafting-wax The earlier this is done the better.

Should the wounds be wider and extend more than

228

FIVE ACRES

way around the trunks bridge-graft them To do this choose
watersprouts or other long, straight twigs of only one sea-
son’s growth and of the same kind of plant as the girdled
tree, i. e , apple sprouts for apple trees, pear for pear, and so
on Place the sprouts where they will keep cold and moist
until used The best time to use them is when the buds on
the trees to be grafted are beginning to swell m spring But

RIGHT WAY

Fig S3 Right and wrong ways ti
proper taper cut for bowed insertio
G, H, wrong ways of cutting scions
cambium of scion and stock

WRONG WAY

make scions for bridge grafting A, B,
I, C, D. cuts for inlay insertion,

These make poor contacts between the

if the sprouts are kept dormant they may be ustrf even ^
late as the development of the leaves on the trees I to be
Trees of all ages may be bndge^rafted, most of them
successfully, if the work is done shortly after tjjj J*
been girdled However, some types of injury ’OgM ^

profitably so treated For instance, und f. r a J° f s flU r vears old
is advisable to replant trees younger than four years
W, “one-year tree, if the girdling is above the graft-union,

* Part of what follows has been condensed from C«»ta « of the W—
Experiment Station

229

GRAFTING FRUIT TREES

the trunk may be cut oS just bdow the girdled area and one
of the new shoots that push out used to make a new tree
Shoots from below the graft-union should not be saved, since
they are from the seedling stock Where the girdling is be-
low or dose to the graft-union, the trunk may be cut off,
a sdon of the desired variety grafted in the trunk and a
shoot from this scion developed into a new tree

It usually does not pay to bridge trees that have been
completely or almost completely girdled for a year or more
They are generally in such a low state of vigor they will not
respond

Bridge-grafting over body-blighted areas will not prove
profitable unless the blighted areas are thoroughly removed
well back of the diseased areas and the exposed wood sur-
faces are sterilized and kept covered with grafting-wax for
the first year

Peach trees do not respond so satisfactorily to bridge-
grafting as do other trees, so it is doubtful if much will be
gamed by working them

As to the operation itself, anyone may be successful if he
will follow these directions-

1 Remove all trash on the ground, hoeing away the earth
if necessary to get at the lowest parts of the wounds 2 Trim
the edges of the wounds with a sharp knife to remove all
dried and ragged bark and leave a smooth surface on the
edges of the wound all around. 3. Disinfect all the wounded
parts with corrosive sublimate solution (1 part in 1,000),
Bordeaux mixture, lime sulfur solution or any other fungi-
cide 4. Cut the scions 2" to 4" longer than the vertical
height of the wound, depending on the distance, up and
down, to be bridged Short distances require relatively
shorter twigs than long distance S With a sharp knife cut
each end of each scion tapering 1" or more (Fig S3),
both cuts facing the same direction 6 Vertically bdow e ach
frame limb place at least one scion so as to bridge the gap
at such points, making vertical cuts about 2 " long and 2 "
to 3" apart through the bark of the wounded tree on the
upper and lower sides of the wound

7 The thickness of the bark will determine the type of
cut to make to receive the scion For young trees with thiD

230 FIVE ACRES

bark, cut a single slit about I" long through the bark at nrh
point where a scion end is to be pkced MaKe slk 2
JJJ way <* at sci0n can be inserted between the bark

wT^ S ** bark b u tween ** sclons

t^ig j>4 a; With older trees where the bark is thick
i?^,H tW n Sht fi each 1// . long ( B )> as far apart as the soon

old^nnt^rt, 0 * 3 trees 1 ^. th ver y tough bark, and on
old roots, the removal of a piece of bark 3" to 4" long and

Fig 54 Bridge grafting left, A, single slit, B, double slit, BB and CC,
arching of scions Right, Home-made grafting-wax heater made from pa As

as wide as the end of the scion will prove most satisfactory
(C) When the scions are ready to be inserted, loosen the
edges along the single split so the scion may be readily in-
serted between the bark and the wood (A) When using the
double split, raise the tongue between the 2 cuts (B).

By following the above directions usually 100% success
will result The scions will grow in girth until, in time, they
join to form a new, smooth trunk with no ridges to show
where the repair or bridge was made

A good grafting-wax may be made as follows: Weigh
separately three pounds each of rosm and beeswax and two
of bard beef tallow, the first m small lumps. Place the rosin
in a clean pot that need never after be used for anything

231

GRAFTING FRUIT TREES

else(i), warm it over a gentle fire until it is all melted, then
add the beeswax and tallow. After these have also melted
stir until the mixture is uniform Then remove from the fire
and pour in a tub of cold water. As soon as cool enough to
handle, knead and pull it until it looks like molasses taffy.
To prevent the stuff from sticking to the skin grease the
hands The finished wax will keep indefinitely either in the
pot, in sticks or in balls

For a softer wax add a little more tallow, for a harder
one, slightly increase the beeswax In cold weather soft
waxes are easier to apply than hard on®, but hard on®
usually ding to the wounds better in hot weather.

During the past few years paraffin has been used instead
of grafting-wax. The only objection to it is that it must be
melted in order to apply it. When much grafting is to be
done a railway switchman’s lantern mak® a convenient
heater as it may be easily carried from place to place and
either set down or hung by its handle.

To adapt it cut out the ventilator which is replaced by a
metal cup to hold the paraffin Even in cold weather the
flame of the lamp will provide enough heat to keep the
paraffin melted and on warm days it will not become too hot
if the flame is turned low Melted paraffin may be most
easily applied with a small, flat, long haired painter’s brush
Both sdon and stock should be completely covered with the
paraffin to check evaporation When the buds start to grow
they will easily push through. This would be good for
grafting-wax also; provided the wax is melted, otherwise it
cannot be done satisfactorily.

A good brush wax may be made by melting and
thoroughly mixing five parts rosin, one part beeswax, and
one-fourth part raw linseed oil Boiling is not nec®sary
Another formula calls for six parts rosin, one part beeswax
and one part raw linseed oil. ’

“When brush wax is used, a container for keeping it warm
is necessary. A convenient and inexpensive one may be
made from a one-gallon and a one-half-gallon syrup bucket
and two piec® of heavy wire If the wax is melted before
going to the field, a small alcohol lamp will keep it m^ ted
except on very cold days. If no such lamp is available one

232

FIVE ACRES

may be made by cutting oil about three-fourths of the spout
of a common machine, oil can and pulling a piece of woolen
cloth up through the cut-off spout to serve as the wick A
small thimble may be used as a cap over the spout and wick
to keep the wood alcohol from evaporating when die lamp
is not in use ” (Fig 54 )

39

HOW TO AVOID NURSERY STOCK LOSSES

Cheap trees are seldom, if ever, a bargain, the grower should insist
on having first class trees and should be willing to pay for them
Paddock and Whipple,

In Frwt Growing tn And Regions

R ecent investigation and experiment indicate that at least
90% of the disappointment and expense caused by im-
proper management of nursery stock can be prevented m
proportion as people learn what to avoid, what to choose
when purchasing, how to plant and how to take care of
nursery stock, especially while young The essentials are so
simple and so easily applied that anybody can manage them,
whether or not he has ever planted a tree before Better
still, the most important items cost nothing, except a few
minutes to do them Having spent good money for trees and
shrubs it is as foolish to neglect these essentials as to run

an automobile without oill , , „ ...

Most beginners assume that trees as received from “e
nursery are "full of wim, wigor and witahty and therefore
“rarin’ to go," or rather grow. Perhaps they were before be-
ing dug, but in spite of the most careful digging 7 °
75% of even more of the feeding rootlets are inevitably cut
off and only part of the conduit roots are left

Experiments with countless trees and bushes and mny
species have supported the business tree plan * eM , ne root
£t these remnants ef conduit rcotsamnetje
duty and supply the trunks with the ““JfJL-
develop leaves and new branches Though the roots stnve

HOW TO AVOID NURSERY STOCK LOSSES 233

nobly to meet this demand, the branches attempt to carry
on as if nothing had happened. The result is that, unless the
top is reduced, the tree always suffers and probably dies

To prevent this calamity it has been proved that a balance
must be struck between top and root (Chapter 37 )

Experiment and experience have also proved that freshly
dug nursery stock properly handled and planted recovers
more quickly and grows better than otherwise equally good
stock that has been kept in storage Whenever possible,
therefore, freshly dug stock should be given preference. Ex-
cept with autumn planting, modern nursery methods and
popular demand almost preclude this practise with fruit
trees and shrubs The great bulk of such stock sold in spring
is dug during the previous autumn and stored from three to
six months before the buyer plants it' The exigencies of the
nursery business have compelled the development of these
storage methods In spite of the best care the nurseries can
give, a tree in storage not only loses vitality but the later it is
planted the poorer the chance it has, especially in the hands
of inexperienced planters, of overcoming the daily more ad-
verse conditions of air and soil as spring approaches summer.

Still another handicap all nursery stock has to meet is
the drying of the roots, branches and trunks (in the order
named) when dug and exposed to sun and wind, when packed
loosely, when shipped long distances, when unpacked and
again left exposed to sun and wind, when planted in loose,
dry soil and when left with unpruned tops as already ex-
plained.

Experiment and experience agree that fruit trees and
shrubs of ordinary nursery sizes may be shipped safely with-
out soil around their roots but with damp packing materials
of various kinds If it has been stored or has been long in
transit it will be benefited by being plunged, root and branch
if possible, in a pond, a stream, a barrel or a deep tub
brim-full of water and so kept for a day or longer before
being planted. It will thus “plump up” and have a far better
chance of growing than if planted at once, or just as it ar-
rives Burying in sopping wet soil for three days to a week
will give equally good results. I have saved almost brittle-
dry stock in this way.

234

FIVE ACRES

Analyses of countless cases have proved that attempts
“to get fruit soon” are responsible for more failures and dis-
appointments in amateur planting than is perhaps any other
one thing The fact that professional tree movers succeed
in transplanting mature trees, perhaps in full leaf, tempts
many inexperienced people to buy large stock. They do not
realize that the tree movers' trees are specially handled by
experts to insure success Many of them are prepared for
the ordeal of transplanting by perhaps years of tedious and
costly root pruning, or previous transplantings; others are
dug with exceeding care to save the largest possible amount
of roots which are kept moist by wrappings of wet burlap
Finally, care is given at frequent intervals for at least a
year, especially as to watering.

All this is very different from planting the ordinary “bear-
ing age” trees which some nurseries offer for sale at ad-
vanced prices Unless these are prepared as just explained
the losses of roots in such cases are so great that the trees
rarely recover, much less continue to develop into beautiful,
fruitful specimens Generally, therefore, smaller, less costly
trees become established promptly and not only catch up
with, but outstrip larger ones of the same kinds

Modern machine methods of digging ordinary sizes oi
nursery trees are far quicker than old fashioned spade dig-
ging but they split, break, tear and scrape the conduit roots
as well as cut off the feeding rootlets The larger and older
the trees, the greater the loss Though English experiments
seem to prove that roots so injured recover without doing
damage to the trees through decay or permitting disease to
enter, American tree planters agree that it is safer to
these injured parts so as to concentrate the healing energy
and thus hasten both the recovery of the trees and the
establishment of new feeding roots . . _

Commercial tree planters differ as to methods of pb W
yet recent experiments have proved that the old f.u
plan of spreading the roots out in all directions ,
Sian crowding them in a bunch as many commcrcMi o dmrd
planters do For when they are spread out h«c's ‘ t , C or
So danger of any root strangling another and thus i m P ai infi
its usefulness, if not starring the tree

HOW TO AVOID NURSERY STOCK LOSSES 235

Trees by the thousand are killed annually by placing
manure or fertilizer in the holes dug for them These ma-
terials come in contact with the roots of newly planted trees
and when wet make such strong solutions that they literally
bum the forming rootlets until the tree gives up attempting
to develop them The only safe way to apply these materials
is to mix them with the surface layer of soil after tree plant-
ing so the solutions may become diluted before they reach
the tender rootlets When digging the holes throw the good
top soil in one pile and the lower or poorer subsoil in
another It is safe and sane to place the best available soil
in close contact with the roots and the poorer soil on the
surface The former encourages development of new roots;
the latter discourages weed growth.

A study of hundreds of failures to make good stock grow
shows that the stock was planted loosely. Practical tree
planters always require that the earth be packed firmly
around the roots as the plants are being set Unless this is
done too much air is left m the soil, moisture evaporates
rapidly, new roots fail to develop, the old ones dry out and
the tree dies It is important to maintain 1 " to 2" of loose soil
above the hard packed earth in which the roots are embedded
as this tends to check evaporation of water from the lower
soil and to discourage weed growth.

After each tree is planted it is imperative to remove the
label which the nursery has generally wired tightly to the
trunk If desired it may be attached to a branch by a loop
of as large a diameter as the wire will permit. If the wire is
left wound around the trunk or a branch it will girdle or
“strangle” the stem at that point. The part above the con-
striction may blossom the following year but die soon after.

When the above essentials and precautions are practised
even the beginner should succeed as well as the professional
in making trees grow— practically 100%. Then by the ap-
plication of some other principles he may build so str ongl y
that until they approach senility they will carry heavy loads
of fruit, ice or snow and stand the stress of high winds with-
out breaking.

It is always advisable to buy high grade trees, not neces-
sarily the largest but well grown ones First choice should

236

FIVE ACRES

be those whose principal branches, if any, are far apart ( 12 *
or prefeia'uly more in the case of apple, sweet cherry and
pear) and pointing in several directions The inferior and
poorly placed ones should be cut off The strongest, best
placed ones make most symmetrical trees. Among nursery
trees as ordinarily grown such trees are rare because of the
intensive methods of growing and because many nursery-
men still cut the “leaders,” or main trunks of their yearling
trees, thus favoring cultivation between the nurserj rows,
but forcing the development of branches in bunches just be-
low the cuts Rather than buy such trees it is better to
choose young, straight, unbranched trees of these species
With these unbranched “whips” it is easy to develop struc-
turally strong trees as already e\plamed (Chapter 37 )
When such trees are bought in the fall they arc usually
chosen m the nursery row and dug individually by hand.
They are therefore probably better specimens and in better
condition than those dug by machine, stored over winter
and hastily grabbed from a pile during the nurserj ’s busy
season When planted in the fall they are likely to start
growth long before spring planted trees, if planted in spring
the work should be done as soon as possible after the fro-t
is out of the ground so as to give the trees the best and
earliest possible start In those two cases no part of t i

“leader” should be cut off ,

The symmetry and strength of such trees may still further
be developed by treating each of the frame limbs as it it
were a trunk— allowing only a few secondary, dwtontl)
spaced branches to develop on each until after j K .
or third year The upward cMcnMon of the run!- ' " 1
treated as during the first ycar-mppmg ofi all wjpi J
to five frame branches each year, preferable , , ’
number In due lime as the tree wii roach 1 “ . f « 1){
height it will reduce its upward dcvclopaun land mi
The strength and beauty of such specimens arc writ woMi
the small effort to secure them „ y.m t

Sometimes a tree is received from a nur- v , , “ , f i
construction of trunk and two eutth < 1 >

(Fig. 55) Unless such eases- art treated » r £ n
Sm branches w,I! breal down or lab. W

HOW TO AVOID NURSERY STOCK LOSSES 237

case is easy to treat id several ways Perhaps the best is to
cut ofi all but 4" to 6" of whichever branch seems to be the
inferior and a year or so later to remove the stub close to
the trunk If cut back altogether the first year the wound
will be proportionately larger so drying of the trunk at this
point might be so great that the tree might die.

Fig SS Best way to treat Y-crotch m young tree
(From photo )

Another way is to shorten the inferior branch 50% to
75%. It will thus develop as a branch upon the sunerior
one which will become the main trunk
In cases where- both arms of the Y have been allowed to
grow for several years < the symmetry and the weU being of
the tree would be injured if one were then cut off Yet the
inevitable breakdown may be prevented in either of two
easy ways One is by braiding and tying two branches to-

CROPS TO AVOID AND TO CHOOSE 239

40

VEGETABLE CROPS TO AVOID AND
TO CHOOSE

Gardening for money requires unceasing attention, close and thor-
ough management, considerable hard labor, and often more or less
exposure to the vicissitudes and inclemencies of the seasons Neverthe-
less it is true that the majority of the profession make altogether too
much work of it, especially by neglecting to make use of the newer
improved implements of tillage

T Greiner,

In Eow to Make the Garden Pay .

O ne of the most striking and interesting things that a
visit to a large city market will reveal especially in
New York, Washington, Chicago, New Orleans or San Fran-
cisco, is the varied assortment of vegetables offered for sale.
The fact that many of these are not staples but yet are of-
fered in commercial quantities indicates, first, that they are
in demand and, second, that at least some growers consider
them profitable because they appear year after year and in
about the same amounts They are bought mainly by people
of Italian, French, German, Chinese, Japanese, Negro and
other foreign descent

Should you wish to grow such crops you will probably
have to search through a dozen, a score or more catalogues
to find seed because few American seedsmen carry more than
one or two each of the more common ones. The others would
have to be bought from foreign seedsmen who specialize in
what, to Americans, are oddities. In fact, you might have to
write to the growers of such vegetables to discover where
seeds may be obtained

So far as growing them for market is concerned, at least
where there is no resident foreign population, you might find
no demand because people are so slow to try strange foods
that you might lose money by raising them for sale They
should therefore be the ‘first to omit from any list of vege-
tables to be grown for coifimerdal purposes '

The next vegetables to discard should be those known as

240

FIVE ACRES

gamble crops”— the ones reputed to be difficult for one
reason or another. To be sure, many growers find them
profitable because they give the extra care these crops re-
quire. For instance, though mushrooms spring up spontane-
ously in lawns and pastures during favorable seasons in late
summer and autumn they require "caves” or “cellars” in
which to grow at other times and they are so subject to the
attacks of insects and other enemies that many people fail
with them

If cauliflower, another gamble crop, were subject to only
the insect and disease enemies of its dose rdative, cabbage,
anyone could grow it, at least after a fashion But as it de-
mands cool weather, ample moisture in the soil and special
attention to shade each head individually to make it blanch
or whiten properly, it is a crop for only the man who will
provide these favorable conditions and is willing to do the
necessary fussing

Watermelons, cantaloupes and cucumbers are gamble
crops in many parts of the country because of "wilt,” a
bacterial or fungous disease which destroys the vines usu-
ally just before the fruit would normally ripen Though it is
possible to prevent such disaster you, as a novice grower,
are almost sure to belittle the methods or to follow them in
an imperfect way with the result that after failing one or
more times you will condemn them as worthless

For these reasons it is advisable to limit yourself to the
more or less simple crops until you have learned how to
manage each one successfully Before deciding to grow any
of even these, however, be sure to learn as much as you can
about each one so as to know what to evpect, especially the
points brought out in the reading pages and the tabulated
data in the appendices of this book, notably, the proper
time to sow each kind, the amount of time it requires to reach
edible maturity, its ability to withstand frost, for many of
the disappointments, if not total failures and Josses, may

thus be avoided . . . . ,,

To illustrate* If you sow com when parsnip seed snoum
be sown the seed will rot because the soil then is too wet
and cold for it, or if seedlings do appear they arc almost sure
to be killed by frost. Conversely, if you sow par*iup -ee

CROPS TO AVOID AND TO CHOOSE 241

at corn planting time it will probably not sprout because
the soil is then too dry for it, or if it does start to grow
the seedlings will be burned up by the sun or will have too
short a season m which to mature

When your aim is to make money quickly, avoid the long
season crops such as leeks, salsify and parsnips because they
occupy the ground from early spring until late fall and be-
cause at best they usually sell in only small quantities and
at comparatively low prices Choose the quicker crops that
are in positive, good demand, for instance, scallions (green
onions from “sets”), radishes, spinach, and lettuce for spring
sales, garden peas, round beets, and “horn” carrots for early
summer, early cabbage, tomatoes, com and peppers for
midsummer and early fall; and late cabbage, s ummer sown
round beets and carrots for late fall and early winter Not
only do thee crops each occupy the soil for only a short
time but they combine well with one another as companion
or succession crops (Chapter 32) so the same areas may be
made to produce several crops instead of only one in a sin gle
season ,

Though it is usually desirable to grow sufficient quantities
of staple vegetables such as late potatoes, late cabbage, npe
onions and turnips to supply the family table, it may not be
profitable to raise these crops for sale because of competi-
tion with commercial truckers who have special equipment
for handling them on a large scale And yet this suggestion
must not be applied too sweepingly because some of them
may he locally profitable in spite of commercial competi-
tion, especially when an extra choice variety is grown and
can be sold fresh, when the quality of the stock is exception-
ally fine or when the product may be placed on sale when
the market is bare, at least of a comparable quality For in-
stance, home grown, well ripened tomatoes that come in
competition with southern ones, particularly when the local
ones are exceptionally early, wffl always command a
premium price. • ,

One of my truck-growing neighbors always plants his
tomatoes a month to six weeks later than do his conmetitors
most of whom at first jeered at him for his “folly!” But
just before frost he gathers the fruit, ripens it on deep straw

242

FIVE ACRES

in coldframes which he coven at nisht and in mM *
if” d S6 ? S C t ring 0ctober 5111(1 November when the
™ 0ft SUPPI1CS and therefore kgb
A a ? k ? more »°ney out of his tomatoes at suih
pnces than do tos neighbors when the market is well sud-
Phed — and does it with much less workl ^

For repeat sales it is desirable to grow only high quality
varieties There are such of nearly all kinds of vegetable
The extra early varieties, particularly of corn and garden
peas, have only their earliness to commend them. They are
profitable because of this and because people are so glad
to get a first taste ’ that they are willing to forgive even
serious short-comings, but for mid-season and late the high
quality kinds are what produce repeat sales and enhance the
local reputation of the grower Therefore, be on the rnnctani
lookout for new kinds superior to anything you have already
grown Test the novelties in a small way the first year they
are offered for sale, in fact, if you will gain and never be-
tray the confidence of the seedsmen you may have the privi-
lege of testing such novelties a year or more before they are
offered to the general public
For sale, some varieties or some crops are better keepers
than others Hence when keeping does not oppose high qual-
ity these should be given preference for both home use and
market The seedsmen generally indicate which varieties are
noted in these ways

In some cases vegetables may be utilized or sold in several
ways These, therefore, offer more than one chance to make
money out of them For instance, set onions that cannot be
sold as scallions may be allowed to mature for sale as dned
ones and seedling onions may be thinned out and sold as
scallions or “green boilers”, beans, especially white seeded
and "kidney’' varieties, may be sold as green “string beans”
or dned seed, limas sell readily both as green and npe
beans, tomatoes have ready sale when npe and m the fall
green ones also sell fairly well for making pickles and rel-
ishes of vanous kinds

When canning and pickling are added to the sources of
income, tomatoes, peppers, onions and celery make many
fine relish combinations which need only be sampled to be

243

SEEDS AND SEEDING

sold. Besides these surplus gherkins, “dill size” cucumbers,
baby beets and carrots, pickling onions, rhubarb and aspara-
gus all may be canned or pickled and sold at a profit, as
many a farmer’s wife can attest.

41

SEEDS AND SEEDING

The cost of seed is ordmanly a trifling matter m comparison with
the expense of the season’s labor and the value of the crop
L H Bailey,

In The Principles of Vegetable Gardening

O

,ne of the hardest lessons for a beginner to learn is
_ that cheap seed is the most costly to buy' Why is it
cheap? It may be— probably is — not true to name' It may
be old — SO to 100% dead or at least weak! It may have
been— probably has been — cheaply and therefore carelessly
grown and poorly “rogued” (if at all) or otherwise carelessly
handled In no branch of farming is it so true that the penny
wise, pound foolish policy is so often or so strikingly il-
lustrated as in the buying of cheap seed
As no one can grow a successful crop of anything from
poor seed, the time and attention devoted to the plants will
be largely, if not wholly wasted The difference in first cost
between cheap and "costly” seed is so slight that no one
who has his best interests at stake will hesitate to pay it-
for the so-called costly seed will, or should meet all the
requirements of "good seed”, namely, viability (ability to
come to life”) when conditions — moisture, oxygen and heat
are supplied; freedom from weed seed and debris 100%
time to name, disease-, and insect-free, and ability to Pro-
duce a crop of uniformity and excellence, *

Since none but the best seeds are good to buy as much in-
formation as possible should be gathered about the See dX
man and each lot of seeds before the purchase of any When
tiiere is any doubt as to which is the better of twostratos
samples of each should be grown under identic^ soil SJ

244

FIVE ACRES

ditions and treatment to decide, then to order that strain
which gives best account of itself To be sure of getting
such a strain it is essential to buy samples under guarantee
that the same strain, either named or numbered, can be sup-
plied the following year and for a series of years. For, con-
trary to popular belief, no seedsman grows all his own seed,
he contracts with specialist seed growers, each of whom
may supply only one variety or strain of a kind, for in-
stance, Chantenay and no other variety of carrot, Metro-
politan and no other variety of sweet corn Thus both the
seedsman and his patrons may be sure of pure seed
It is highly desirable to conduct strain tests because, as
the experiment stations have proved with practically every
grain and vegetable grown from seed, there are wide vana-
tions within the limits of a variety as to time of maturity,
yield, uniformity and many other important features which
make one strain worth more than another Hence the sooner
the best strain is located the better for the grower To
illustrate this point, that old stand-by, Detroit Dark Red,
my own favorite variety of beet, now differs so widely in its
strains that some might well be called different varieties
Each reliable seedsman makes a specialty of some one
or other variety or strain of vegetable, hence the further
advisability of “shopping around,” not for prices but tor
profits' This means that you may buy your cabbage seed
from Jones, tomato from Brown, carrot from Smith and

eans from Robinson , , . , . ,

Though the business plantings should always be of known
:andard varieties and strains, it » highly important to test
le novelties in moderation the first year they ,

need, for thereby some genuine ‘find may be located a
ear or even several years before the less alert gr
nd it and profits may be reaped before they J“P°
ie other hand, no matter how reliable these^smmi, rt
i almost never safe to launch out extensively ( P
bly expensively') with any of these novels unhl aft
hey have been tested on one s own place S ^

5Je until the new have proved themselves better or at

“Wig ''"**“* of a** tifab * a?* it fa rt-

245

SEEDS AND SEEDING

visable to buy more than will be needed during any one
year lot th us trueness to desired type may be determined
by of sample planting the first year and the balance
of the seed stored for future business planting if of proper
quality.

Some seedsmen hold certain kinds of seeds for a year so
as to test their trueness to type by growing them for a sea-
son before ofienng them for sale They, and others, often
sell various fo'nria of seed left from one season to the next,
provided its germination tests indicate that it should give
satisfactory stands of plants Some of these latter seedsmen
stamp the percentage of germination on ounce and larger
packages of seed so the buyer may govern the rate of sow-
ing— thin for high, thick for low percentage of germination
The grower, however, usually has no way of knowing
beforehand what to expect. So it is advisable for him to
conduct a germination test for himself This is easy to do by
placing a counted number of seeds (25, 50 or 100) between
sheets of white blotting paper in a plate, covering them with
another plate inverted to check, drying and keeping them
moist, not wet, until the test is over In a warm room the
seeds if “strong” will sprout in a few days; if “weak” in
perhaps many; if "dead” not at all Each day they should
be examined, the sprouted ones counted, recorded and
thrown away Rapidity and uniformity of sprouting indic ate
strength, slowness and irregularity, weakness High per-
centage recommends thin sowing; low percentage, fhiVb
sowing Weakness suggests that the plants may fail to grow
in the open ground. Radish and other members of the mus-
tard family usually sprout well within a week, carrots and
other members of the parsley family may take three weeks
During the past 40 or 50 years countless experiments have
been conducted to determine the difference in germination
sturdiness of plant, earhness, yield, etc between plants
grown from large or heavy seed and from small and light
seed Without going into- detail let it suffice that large seed
I5 , su P^ ri0r t0 , smaU °f tbe same variety and strain So it is
advisable to buy greater quantiles than necessary of moS
seeds, to sift out the small ones and either to sow thorn
separately from the large ones or to throw them away.

246

FIVE ACRES

The superior value of large seed over small is perhaps
most strikingly illustrated by Country Gentleman sweet
corn, one of the favorite varieties for canning Bulk or gen-
eral run seed produces such uneven stands and such varia-
tion m maturity of the ears that the Indiana Canners As-
sociation asked the state experiment station to develop better
strains The following are striking features and comments
published by I C Hoffman in the Journal of Agricultural
Research (Vol XXXI, No 11)

Large and small kernels were chosen from individual ears
and from bulk seed, planted and grown under identical con-
ditions with the results that the large seed germinated better,
produced larger plants, more 2 -eared stalks, larger ears and
the ears were teady for gathering an average of 5 days
earlier than ears borne by plants produced by small seeds
They also produced fewer barren and unproductive stalks
When ears on the large seeded plants were ready for can-
ning those on the small seeded plants were “so tender and
watery that the corn was unfit for use ” These results were
attained not only in experiments but were also proved upon
an acreage scale by growers cooperating with canning fac-

tories , ,

The reason for such results is ascribed to the fact that
large seeds contain more reserve food material than do smaU
ones Therefore, it is recommended that seed be gra®"
before sowing, the large and heavy kernels being separa
from the small seeded ones and each lot sown by its
order to approximate uniform stands .

Just before I started to write today an amateur gardener
told me that he believed “the best way to get rehable se^
is to grow it yourself ” He is not so sure now! ^en om is
merely interested in getting a radish or some o
vegetable, home seed saving may answer fairly
when it is important to have a specific type o P
have it uniform as to type, earliness, color, si , ^

in fact, to have it seem as if poured from a caldron into a
mold — “wen, that’s something again ^ forms

Seed growing and saving are such h g* 1 *?. fP X n w

of business and demand sucn inmnaic T nd * the

in question, the needs of the business gro

247

SEEDS AND SEEDING

demands of the public that the grower of vegetables for sale
may well leave it to the specialists who devote their lives to
it There are too many risks to run Yet after one has had
experience in growing vegetables he may find it to his advan-
tage to produce some kinds of seed; but this is a branch of
work which, to get best results demands at least a working
knowledge of plant breeding — a subject beyond the scope of
this book

Though * germination depends upon moisture, air, viable
(i. e , ablc-to-live) seed and temperature we generally think
of only the last two factors. No one expects dead seed to
grow, but many people fail to grasp the importance of favor-
able temperature and of proper management of seeds and
seedlings.

Some seeds (oats and shepherd’s purse— a weed) will
sprout on melting ice, others (portulaca and pussley— a
weed) do so only when the soil is hot How foolish then to
sow the former seed when the ground is dry and hot and the
latter under reverse conditions 1 The former, not finding suf-
ficient moisture, will usually remain dormant or if it does
sprout the seedlings may shrivel and die, the latter in wet,
raid soil mil either rot or wait till the temperature rises and
the moisture lessens To prevent such experiences follow the
seedsman’s directions

The importance of sowing and planting at proper times is
ft"?-"* fact that some P Iant species are killed

?° StS ’ 0thers are not > likewise that plants of

C2S ' ,h “ “ totde “ 5d off " m

Seasonal and local conditions so greatly influence

Msswity? a***

Denver Colorado, is 5,270' above sea “vel P
Pennsylvania (in practically the sane
about a tenth of this above high tide- w ES? ^ onIy
prevailing winter and spring ufnds are from

248

FIVE ACRES

and those of Philadelphia from the cold North the temper-
atures at Denver are often 20° or more higher than those of
Philadelphia during February, March and April
Again, localities vary as to temperature, one is "early”
another "late” as explained in Chapter 8
Such influences, coupled with character and condition of
soil may make one or two weeks’ difference m the advisable
date of sowing seed or setting plants of any specified kind So
likewise may the date the last killing spring frost normally

occurs

Commercial gardeners nowadays govern their spring sow-
ing and planting largely by the weather maps and still more
by the daily forecasts of the United States Weather Bureau
Isotherms, or lines of equal temperature, serve as guides to
safe seedage and planting. For instance, the isotherm of
45° is the northern safe limit of transplanting hardy plants
(cabbage and lettuce) from coldframes to the open ground,
and that of 60° for tender plants (tomato and peppers) To
have plants ready on the dates when these temperatures
normally arrive the seed is sown under glass 5 or 6 weeks

ftfirlifir

Another popular, satisfactory way to govern seedage and
plant setting is to follow natural signs, sowing hardiest seeds
outdoors only after buds of the earliest shrubs and trees
of the neighborhood swell — spicebush, forsythia, pea >
red maple, those somewhat less hardy when jnne-berry,
Japanese quince and plum are in bloom, the semi-ten er
kinds when apple, cherry, pear and sugar maple are flower-
ing, and the tender ones when mock-orange, grape, raspberry
and horse-chestnut are m blossom

Ground temperature more than that of the air S DV ^ 1 ?
sprouting and plant growth In spring ovly3 or
the surface the soil temperature may be 4° thougi tbat o
air is 70° or 80° So anything that will raise this temperato

will favor gemmation, plant development and earlmg
Good drainage and darkening soil after jhe seedbai tos

been prepared for seeding both help to ^

black swamp muck, to darken the surface will hdp » me
fatter case, it absorbs sun heat and ! thm i raises m il l
ature It will also become humus after being turn

249

SEEDS AND SEEDING

Properly managed hotbeds and coldframes produce supe-
rior seedlings and flats (shallow boxes) are better than flower
pots or rows in hotbed or coldframe. For minute seeds
shallow cigar boxes are fair substitutes for the pottery “seed
pans” popular with plantsmen.

You may buy standard cypress flats or make similar ones
yourself As wet earth is heavy, avoid sizes larger than
12" x 18"x3%" deep, preferably only 3" inside Standard
sizes fit in hotbeds or coldframes without waste space End
pieces should be of bottoms and sides of material.
In the bottom have five %" drainage holes arranged as on
a 5-spot playing card

To prepare a flat for seed sowing place pieces of broken
flower pots, crockery or glassware over the drainage holes,
next a %" layer of pulverized, thoroughly decayed manure,
sphagnum moss or granulated peat to absorb and retain water
but let excess dram off On this spread sifted soil until the
flat is level full while loose, but a below the edge when
somewhat pressed down To press it use a smooth board about
4" wide, almost as long as the inside width of the flat and with
an easily grasped handle.

As the roots are perhaps the most important parts of plants
develop them as well as possible before transplanting There-
fore m the flats use a rather poor soil mixture — one about
half fine sand, a quarter humus, and the other quarter only
moderately rich soil, well combined and sifted free of lumps.

m , ake roots fora S e tend to develop them
well but make small tops When transplanted to open ground

with S?.* 8 ** weU md devd °P far better thanthose
with more top and less root.

SCatt f seed direct fr <>ra the seed packet in the
^ ws ' but “fy Set it too thick and produce inferior (because

offered by garden supply store “ S conv ™e

1 *' ee 1*0; a*

250

FIVE ACRES

ones (celery, thyme) Drop the individual seeds farther apart
in the rows than recommended by seedsmen to reduce the
work and waste of weeding and thinning and to increase stur-
diness Merely press small seeds into die surface and cover
the larger sizes with only once or twice their diameters by
scattering finely sifted soil or sand over them and pressing it
somewhat

To avoid errors in plant names follow the greenhouse and
nursery rule to place a label at the front end of the left hand
row and the nest where the next variety starts Thus you will
always read from front to back and from left to right in
each flat If you follow the rule in the outdoor nursery rows
you will know exactly what plants you are growing and will
thus avoid mistakes due to lack of system

When broad casting small lots of seed divide your flats into
two, three or four areas by pressing the edge of the firming-
board hard enough in the soil to make a slight depression
from side to side and thus mark the bounds of each "seed-
bed.” (Fig. 56 ) Then scatter the seed of one variety thug
in each bed and press it down. Finally, label each area On
every label, starting at the square end write the date of sow-
ing, then, writing toward the point, add the variety name,
using 2 or more lines if necessary .

The best way to water a newly sown or planted flat is to
place it in lukewarm water only an inch or so deep, let it stay
until the surface shows wet spots then remove it, tilt it
to drain away excess water and when drainage is complete,
place in a hotbed, a coldframe or on a greenhouse benctt,
cover it with a pane of glass to check evaporation , and at news-
paper to keep out light When the seeds begin to gennirmte
remove the paper and when the seedlings show ,
the surface take off the glass Repeat *e watering wto
necessary as described or by using a fine rose spnnMer, to
tog carewith the latter to avoid washing the seedlings out of

^T^avoid mixing, separate varieties of one

least one row (preferably two or *ree) °fs ho * fflnC h

species so the differences in type JT cabbage cauliflower,
is w hich For instance, seedlings of cabbage,
broccoli and other varieties of the mustard (botanical) tarn

251

SEEDS AND SEEDING

fly look much alike but differ widdy from those of onto,
carrot, beet, lettuce and tomato which bdong to 5 other

“SdrfSmg sod lor the surface %" or W' use finely
afted sand that has been cooled after baking to destroy the
spores of dampmg-off fungi to prevent killing tiie seedlings
As this trouble is worst when the soQ is wet and the air stag-
nant it may appear in spite of the sand. When the glass shows

Fig 56 1, Tamping silted soil in flat, 2, marking rows for seed sowing,
3, pricking holes in sod with dibble, 4, pressing sod around<seedhngs

water drops on the under side remove it until the surface soil
becomes somewhat dry, or if no glass is used avoid watering
for a day or two, loosen the surface soil with a small stiff wire
and dust the whole fiat with findy powdered sulfur. On the
other hand never let a flat dry out because though the plants
might survive they might be checked aud stunted
Nursery beds outdoors are often used to start plants of
hardy species (parsley, cabbage) to transplant later. Early
beds, for this purpose, usually not more than 3' wide, are best
placed on the south side of a wall to benefit by reflected sun-
heat and thus force rapid growth. By sowing the seed thinly
either broadcast or in rows, pricking out may be almost
wholly avoided, only crowded plants being thinned out and

252

FIVE ACRES

placed m vacant spots In order to prevent baking of the sur*
face soil scatter finely sifted peat moss, or sphagnum moss
over the beds or use burlap screens

If you use a properly adjusted drill to sow the larger sized
vegetable and flower seeds m the open garden the machine will
do the work correctly, but if you sow by hand you must gov-
ern the depth by the size of the seed and the condition of the
soil Some gardeners say' “Cover the seed only 3 or 4 tunes
its diame ter ” But who is gomg to bother about measuring?
I never have 1 This rule merely means make the seed furrow
depth proportionate to the size of the seed — shallow for small
and light ones (carrot, onion) and deeper for larger ones
(bean, com)

In spring while the soil is moist (but not wet) make the
outdoor drills shallow and merely firm the seeds a little in
the ground with the back of the rake After it becomes dry,
even powdery as in summer, make them deeper and pack the
seed in much more If the seed is large (corn, bean, beet)
tramp the earth over it to bring the soil intimately in contact
with it, get rid of excess air and establish moisture connec-
tion between soil and seed

Seedsmen and many gardening writers recommend sow jn S
seed thickly to make sure of a good stand of plants This is
wise if the seed is old or weak, certainly not, in my opinion,
if it is fresh and lusty I practise and r^omm^d ttin-even
sparse — seeding, not to make the seed go fu ...
reduce competition for food and water, to make the seedli gs
sturdier and to reduce thinning of plants

Another point. Some seedsmen and writers advis e
tively broad rows with seed scattered widely When I
because this increases finger and thumb med mg , When l

don’t use a drill I always try to s°v? t e _ weeding
a row as I can by hand so as to reduce thi g

TRANSPLANTING

253

42

TRANSPLANTING

It is a question whether the time at which tender plants shah go into
the ground is a matter of prudence or of courage Transplanting
is not to be recommended where plants most be purchased, or ah one’s
stock is put into the ground at once

Ida D Bennett,

In The Vegetable Garden

U ntil about 1890 many gardening rules-of-thumb taught
by the Old World apprentice system were followed
blindly in America, but from that time until now these have
been challenged and tested, mainly by scientists in our agri-
cultural colleges, experiment stations and the Department of
Agriculture to determine whether they are fo unded on sci-
entific principles, whether they are necessary, and whether
for economy’s sake they should be modified or discarded
Where only a few plants are to be transplanted the matter
may be of small concern, but when thousands are to be han-
dled, the damnation of “superfluous and frequently injurious
practises translates itsdf into economies that may mean the
omerence between profit and loss
Among reasons that suggest the advisability of transplant-
ing, the following seem to be reasonable, at least for American

SS?* 8, } J avm S of costly seed and therefore money
needed to plant specific areas— only an ounce or even leas

to vrn.ft PeCleS beu, 8 necessary to produce enough plants
I®,*.. 0 ” 1 an , , acre > wheras if sown direct in the fidd the
quantity would run into pounds 2. Avoidance of fhnms
and consequent waste of Ldlffgs

He seedlings aid tta XES TaS? 0thet rare ° f

254

FIVE ACRES

sturdy enough for field exposure 8 Utilization of the field by
a crop previous to transplanting the one that is to follow it
These reasons, which seem all to be well founded, indicate
that transplanting is necessary, even though it may be a
necessary evill But many of the ipse dixits of Old World
gardeners are so questionable that investigators have been
conducting experiments to learn the truth One of these,
W. E Loomis, in a 60-page bulletin (“Memoir 87”) of the
Cornell Experiment Station, reports a two years’ investiga-
tion and series of practical and scientific experiments to de-
termine the immediate and secondary effects
As a preliminary to the investigation progressive growers
were asked. In comparison with non-transplanting 1 Does
transplanting cause more heavy growth? Answers were, 15,
yes; 11, no 2. Does it make better root systems? Yes, 25,
no, “1 (?) ” 3 Does it hasten maturity? Yes, 13; no, 10
4 Does it produce heavier yields? Yes, 5, no, 18

These opinions, wntes Loomis, show considerable diver-
gence from earlier recommendations, when we were told to
“transplant freely — nearly all vegetables are better for it ,
to “trans plan t to induce productiveness”, and that “frequent
transplanting is of great benefit but should not be done
merely to give the plants more room " . .

To epitomize his discussion, the experiments indicate that

uiuuku auviiKiv ^ . / r < . ,

writers many growers doubt the advisability of more r -
plantings than required in economical crop P™ d “ ctI “ ™
tendency is away from transplanting as a cultural practise
toward transplanting for economy Early lettuce, ca ge
and tomatoes are transplanted to grow them out of the
normal season for a given locality Tomatoes sw^po^g
and similar vegetables may also be grown in higher latitudes
if the plants are started with artificial heat .

Artificial protection usually requires
cause it is most convenient to have the P^s concratmtrf ^
a small area while the protection rs hemg g* . _ rotectlon
true when special care in cuWvation, waten g^pri
from insects and so forth are feqmr y gjJLjnting
A third ftetor, rrhidt 3

in Greenhouses and some done in intensive emu

TRANSPLANTING

2SS

saving of space and of expensive seeds. For these reasons
transplanting will be practised as long as profitable crops
can be produced by the method On the otter hand; it is an

The immediate effect of transplanting is to slow down or
stop plant growth for a period which apparently vanes di-
redly with the amount and duration of the reduction of the
water supply When a large proportion of the active root
: system is retained and adequate moisture supplied, there
- may be little effect from transplanting Conversely, with
more susceptible plants and more rigorous treatment tte
check may be severe and permanent
Recovery from transplanting is affected by environmental
and internal conditions, but no fador has been found which
doe not appear to be based, in its final effect, on a change
m the water supply of tte plant. The amount of suberiza-
to [cork-ifymg of plant tissues] of tte older roots, tte
proportion of root system normally retained in transplant-
ing, the rate of new root formation, adaptations of too tn
iwent water loss or increase resistance to deatt £ sudde°
raoisture i temperature and other

supply P g ’ ^ through the water

SS2-" <*i» - - SESSL*

256

FIVE ACRES

tender plants tend to disappear The water supply concerned
is the supply moved to the leaves A reduction of the
moisture content of tender leaves insufficient to cause notice-
able wilting may more markedly affect the transpiration rate
than all the hardening which can be given the plant.

There is, however, an important relationship between
hardening and transplanting m the resistance of the hardened
plants to death by drying In those plants not capable of
being hardened the intracellular moisture necessary to main-
tain life is less strongly held, and with the great reduction in
water supply following transplanting the older leaves or, m
extreme cases, the entire plant may be killed by drying

The roots are the most important factor involved m re-
sistance to, or recovery from, transplanting Apparently
three factors are concerned. The proportion of root system
retained in transplanting — dependent upon the size of the
plant and the character of the root branching, the effective-
ness of the roots in absorbing water during the first few days
after transplanting — an effect presumably correlated with
the amount of suberization in the older roots, and the rate
of new root formation — dependent upon the kind and age o
plant and possibly the amount of accumulated food

The immediate effect of transplanting is a reduction in the
water supply, and the immediate and long-time results are
dependent upon the severity and duration of such reduction
Therefore large plants will be more seriously
small ones by transplanting because the proportion of roots
will be less It follows also that those plants having rootsys-
tems of such a form as to be largely tost m transpfenti^or
whose older roots are heavily subenzed so they must depend
upon the outer portions for their moisture supply, mUM
more seriously injured than plants having a more branched
and less heavily suberized root system .

No well-defined relation between the i 'ate ° f
from the top and the ease of transplanting has been ett
lished As an average, however* those P JjJ 9 'jjf -phe

planted are capable of being more
value of such hardening probably lies more mtne
retention by the cells of the nnnsttre ng*W to mW™
hfe than in effect upon transpiration Harden! g y

TRANSPLANTING 257

build up a food reserve to be used later in replacing the
mutilated root system. Both factors are probably active in
certain plants

The rate of new root formation is the most important con-
sideration in the reestablishment of transplanted plants.
Other factors, such as absorptive capacity of the trans-
planted root system, resistance of the top to death by
wilting, rate of growth, and susceptibility of the plant to
stunting, are important only as they tend to bridge the gap
between one root system and the formation of nest or as
their action is allowed to continue because of a slow rate of
replacement.

Transplanting may be an important factor in saving valu-
able greenhouse or garden space, in allowing for better care
of slowly developing seedlings, or in saving time or seed.
While there are isolated instances of crops which appear
to have made a thriftier growth after an early transplanting,
these instances will seldom bear statistical analysis, so the
conclusion that transplanting is a harmful but frequently
necessary operation seems to be required. Conversely, the
field data do not justify a large expense to avoid early trans-
plantings, since the only shift which has consistently either
earliness or total yield in cabbage and tomatoes is the final
one to the field. The use of pots at this stage has produced
earlier crops but has not had an important effect on total
yield.

In the case of commonly transplanted crops handled when
not too large and under favorable conditions, the effect of
v transplanting seems to be proportional to the check in the
growth of the transplanted plants. When growing plants in
the greenhouse this difference may be overcome by earlier
sowing and is frequently lost, even in experimental work, by
slight differences in 'watering or other conditions It would
not seem, therefore,' to be important. Heavy root pruning of
larger plants, transplanting under unfavorable conditions,
or moving crops whose rate of root replacement is slow may
seriously retard maturity and, with crops slow in root re-
placement, may result in permanent stunting.

2 To .supplement the above ^findings and principles let me
add a few suggestions of a practical nature, such as deal

258

FIVE ACRES

with the actual operation * Every experienced man knows
them, <o the B ooncr you ns a beginner learn them the better,
for you should keep them well in mind whenever you have
work of tin's kind to do

Newly turned, deeply worked soil favors transplanting
because the roots quickly become established in it Good
plants — sturdy, stocky ones — arc surer to succeed than
spindly ones, which latter are likely to collapse When the
soil is dry', cool, cloudy days favor success, so do late after-
noon and early evening When possible, transplant just be-
fore a rain Never transplant just after because the soil, un-
less sandy, will puddle and bake Wait until the surface has
lost its excess moisture. Always press the earth firmly around
the roots but leave the immediate surface loose to check
evaporation

Certain species of plants are difficult to transplant suc-
cessfully (melon, squash) — those which the seed packet
directions say: “Sow where the plants are to remain ” How-
ever, some of these may be successfully transplanted if their
seeds are sown in 6 " squares of inverted sod, in strawberry
baskets or paper pots 4 to 6 weeks before time to set m the
garden When transplanting do not disturb the roots Paper
pots are not removed because they soon decay, but straw-
berry boxes must be cut at their corners and the pieces care-
fully slid from below After planting water such plants until
they become established

At least 3 hours (preferably longer) before yw plan to re
move seedlings or transplant potted plants soak the sod
oughly so the plants will be filled with water and so earth
mil cling to their roots Whenever POwNedotowg^
outdoors on a cloudy day, before a ram, toward ev^ng^
after sundown and, unless the soil is mo ,

Te Uifseedlings in the flats *«*****££
leaves prick them out 1' or 2 apart ea uPj m

roots extended downward full length, n develop

another flat and keep them fairly cool so they may dev

stockily and sturdily fld

« mostly looted from the author's M- *• ^

Gardening

\\ \\

TRANSPLANTING 2S9

" . For very small seedlings a large crochet needle or a double
' : pointed stick will lift and place the plants more speedily
•- than fingers Seedlings 1" or 2" high are best pricked out
with a dibble about as thick as one’s middle finger but more
pointed When the plants are 4" to 6" high a fiat trowel is
better than a dibble because when skillfully used there is
- , less danger of leavmg an air-space around the roots Always
j press the soil from the bottom upward and by a sidewise
push to make it firm around all the roots Avoid surface

plant into other flats or outdoors if conditions are favorable
but place the flats in a coldframe otherwise
The day before transplanting to the open ground thor-
oughly soak the soil so the plants will be full of water. To
remove them first tilt the flat and lift it a few inches, then
strike its bottom edge of one side on the ground hard enough
to shift the soil and plants a little so as to break
of the soil with the sides and bottom Then lay it fiat on the
ground and remove a few plants at one comer. After thes e
are out the others may be easily lifted with goodlv lumtw
of soil attached to their roots
Puddling (dipping the roots in thin mud) is usually not a
good practise with small plants because it bunches the roots
instead of keeping them separate. When plants are Kfted

260

FIVE ACRES

with little or no earth attached to them they should have

S? 2? 1““ sb °“ ld >» Protected Ir mm, md 3

* 5"? ap P‘PP‘”S about half the tops u a gml
practise with large leaved plants, especially those lifted with*
™ cl1 attached It is also a good plan to set spindly
plants as deep as their seed leaves, particularly when the
soil is rather dry This places the roots m moister, cooler

Fig 58 Right way to take a plant out of a Sower pot a, hand placed on
soil with plant stem between fingers, b, pot inverted and rapped on bench,
e, ball of soil separated from pot

soil than does shallow setting and tends to keep them from
falling over

In a small way and in dry soil plants may he shaded from
the sun for a day or so after being transplanted by thrusting
a shingle slantingly into the ground on the south side of
each But when the soil is moist and other conditions favor-
able this is not necessary What is more important is to press
the earth firmly around the roots and to leave the surface
earth loose to serve as a mulch
For large scale transplanting various power machines are
available They do excellent work On a smaller scale I have
found a metal plant setter more satisfactory than eimer
trowel or dibble m stony land It drpps, sets “d waters
each plant as the operator strolls slowly across the held in
well prepared stone-free soil from 5,000 to 8,000 plants may
be set in a day.

PLANTS FOR SALE

261

43

PLANTS FOR SALE

Marketing is the culmination of any production enterprise Grow-
ng and selling depend absolutely upon one another The most skillful
induction is in vam if the marketing is not well done On the other
land, the best methods of marketing cannot save an enterprise if
Fields are too low for economy or if the quality is not sufficiently high
jo command ready sale at favorable prices

Paul Work,

In Tomato Production

H ave you ever noticed the spindly, pale, discouraged-
looking plants offered for sale each spring by drug,
grocery, hardware, and “general” stores? Of course, every-
body has' Have you ever wondered how anybody with even
a smattering of garden knowledge could be tempted to buy
such futile stuff? If so, has it ever occurred to you that in
the very towns where these plants are displayed are good
opportunities to make profitable sales of really well grown
plants of good, ■oanetics for transplanting?

Those italicized words hold the secret of success in mak-
ing first sales, repeat sales and developing a profitable busi-
ness Here’s an instance One year when I was p lanning to
grow several acres of late cabbage I paid $10 for a po und
of seed of the very best strain of Danish Ballhead I could
locate, though I could have bought general stock at $6. or
even $5 a pound

The nursery bed was made where the sun reached it all
day in sandy loam, not rich but well supplied with humus
and the seed was sown very thinly, the drill being tested on
a floor to drop only two or three seeds to the inch in the rows
because I wanted to have as sturdy, plants as possible and to
avoid the work of thinning and the loss of valuable plants
as would otherwise.be the case
Just before the plants were ready for transplanting I i n _
serted an advertisement in the local paper to the effect that
I had well grown, stocky plants' of this specially fine strain
for sale, invited buyers to’ call and see them and quoted a

262

FIVE ACRES

price no higher than for ordinary stock Next day a man
called and bought enough plants to pay for the ad 1 The day
following another came and bought aU I was willing to part
with 1 Half a dozen others arrived later — too late! Among
them I could have sold 10 times the quantity I had grown
It would have been more to my interest that first year to
have sold such good plants in smaller quantities to these or
a larger number of buyers because the stock would have
advertised me better and would have led both to repeat sales
and new business in subsequent years.

Instances like this prove that even when one does not have
a greenhouse, a hotbed or a coldframe (as I then did not
have) plants may be profitably grown if they are stocky,
of good color and of choice varieties or strains Still further,
it is easy to sell such plants even when the price asked is a
little higher than that of ordinary stock The small difference
in cost of best over medium or low grade seed is far more than
offset by sales of stock due to the reputation of the variety
and the plants themselves

When one has coldframes the scope is increased consider-
ably Hotbeds widen it still further and a greenhouse, even
though a small one, used in conjunction with these two ac-
cessories gives a field limited only by its size, the avada e
hands and the means of disposing of the plants while in

prime condition trnnn

The following instance * will indicate how well a green-
house, hotbeds and coldframes may be made to pay m*

been dismissed in consequence Yet wuthm 15
petent man whom I engaged made than p y
including his sntay,

first in four or five years. As some of the ways tins was
may help you I shall outline them

Preliminary to starting operations the new man

. mu* * a. Urn ■»»*»*■ ” •— 1 •*'

in the F bruts’ Exchange

263

PLANTS FOR SALE

noitered the town; first, to get an idea of the posable area
of gardens and lie quantity of vegetables and flower plants
that might be needed during the first season; second, to
inmate how many house plants, bulbs in flower, and forced
vegetables might be sold, third, to make a similar estimate
of the cut flowers that the community might use, and fourth,
by inquiry to learn about how many balls, dinners and
other gatherings would likely occur and at about what dates
With these data in hand we made production and sales
plans

Without going into details let it suffice that these plans
included a series of “special sales attractions”; for instance,
cineraria, cyclamen, narcissus, tulip, gladiolus and geranium.
Besides these we bought a few plants of striking interest,
not for sale but solely to pique curiosity and serve as “bait”
to lure the unwary public to the greenhouses when we had
something else to sdl and which our visitors would buy on
sight because of its high quality*

Whenever one of these remarkable plants reached its
showy stage we would put a news item written in editorial,
not advertising, style in the local paper It would tell some-
thing about the plant and suggest hat the people go to see it.

AI1 attracted visitors, many of whom bought house plants,
bulbs in flower, cut flowers, or forced vegetables all of which,
when they arrived, we made it a point to be working with
as if to fill outside orders The high quality of the pinntc
and the freshness of the vegetables contrasted with store
stuff and therefore sold themselves on sight
We also advertised in the local paper, but two or three
?ays before any “ad” was to appear we mailed postal cards
inviting our best patrons to come and choose the best stock
before the general public arrived Such plants we always
sold at somewhat higher prices than those to be advertised
and patrons were always pleased because they felt that thev
really got the full value of their money ^

Our sales were usually advertised to continue one week
the date of starting and dosing always being stated Toward
the dose when there were odds and ends we sometimes an-
nounced a bargain sale of “remnants” or of “surplus stock ”
but whenever possible we scheduled such sales for the s a m e

264

FIVE ACRES

periods as the advanced sales to select patrons were to oc-
cur Oui reason was that we wanted to let the “bargain
hunters” see what really good stock is like and thus, if pos-
sible, teach themselves to appreciate higher qualities and
values

Among other ways by which money may be made by
growing plants for sale are by propagating special varieties,
strains or stocks of plants from seed or stock which patrons
supply Agreements in such cases, always m writing, might
be at set prices for the delivery of specified numbers or per-
centages of plants so grown to certain stages of develop-
ment, the grower to own the balance This plan has worked
especially well among people who come to the country from
the city only u spring or early summer and who want to
have plants of specified kinds reajiy for them to start their

gardens , , .

Where there are local garden clubs or where a large
pnn ngh number of amateurs can be brought together, it is a
good plan to invite them to visit the establishment on a
specific day— always when it is looking its best and when
timely topics of special interest at the tune are to be pre-
sented and discussed On such occasions the owner shotod
outline ways by winch he may serve the gardening im-
munity, especially in the propagation of stock for their

gardens as already outlined , . Mass”

For such reasons as those sketched m this ehapter gja
mav be made one of the most profitable departments ot
small farm, especially m localities where no such equipmen
is already established.

SOMETHING TO SELL EVERY DAY 265

44

SOMETHING TO SELL EVERY DAY

Thebe is no safer place of existence than the moderate sized farm.
It is not often practical to employ a large amount of machinery and
a large area of land in attempting to turn agriculture into manufacture
of some single great staple But the family that makes the farm an
old fashioned home with diversified crops, fruits and domestic animals
sufficient to meet the household needs will still find agriculture one of
the most satisfying forms of existence

Calvin Coolidge

T o be most successful the small scale farmer may well
adopt as his slogan the old advice. “Don’t hurry and
don’t worry, but keep moving and make every stroke count”
especially the last'

Ways to live up to this dictum are. 1 To plan the whole
general scheme well in advance of any action, 2, to decide
which are the major features or crops and get them estab-
lished first, 3, to fill in details in logical order; 4, to review
the experiences, especially the mistakes, of each season and
modify the plans when necessary or advisable for the follow-
ing season so as to emphasize the one and avoid the other,
5, to make important changes only after deliberation
The general plan should take into consideration what
branches of farming are best adapted to the land — those
which will probably produce the best yidds; what ones will
be in sure and great enough demand to pay well; what ones
are least risky, either because of hardiness, ruggedness, few-
ness or insignificance of enemies; what ones may be disposed
of in the greatest variety of ways, and so on After making
this decision, if fruits or perennial vegetables are to be
grown their planting should be done the first year of owner-
ship, even though no money return can be expected for sev-
eral years The cost of stock and development may seem
excessive on the start but after the investment gets under
way, bang permanent, it should pay wdl and for many
years with only the annual cost of up-keep To offset this
expense until the permanent crops pay, annual crops may be

266

FIVE ACRES

grown between the trees and bushes, and certain lands even
between the plants of perennial crops as outlined in Chap-
ter 32. These though planted for profit should always be
such as never interfere, but through their careful culture
actually aid the permanent investment.

However, even under ideal conditions, with hotbeds and
coldframes to start, and with proper storage to extend the
season it (Chapter 50) will rarely be possible to have
“fresh” vegetables to sell during the whole 12 months, usu-
ally not more than 7 or 8, and with fruits not so many So
other branches of farming, yes, and manufacturing, may well
be added to fill in the gaps Among the best are dressed
poultry, eggs, honey, plants for transplanting, flowers (Chap-
ters 22, 23, 43), canned fruits, and vegetables, soups, jams,
jellies, pickles, and fruit syrups

The principal advantages of adding the preserving
branches to the list of departments are first, that unsold,
surplus and cull fruit and some kinds of vegetables may be
converted from waste and 1ms to saving and profit, second,
that sales may be made every day in the year Though all the
fruits may be worked over in one to several of these ways
(and others), many of the vegetables are either not adapted
to such preservation or are too “cheap to allow a fair
margin of profit For instance, out must go the salads and

the potherbs such as spinach ^ .

The ones best suited to canning and for which there is
greatest demand are tomatoes (canned, preserved, cateup,
juice cocktail, pickles), “baby” beets and carrote, btfie
onions and cauliflower (pickles), and rhubarb
serve, juice and wine) With tfie exception eMtojyJ
these, also celery, pepper, leek, flavoring herhs

such as parsley, sage, summer savory a
farious combinations may be used m pickles, re

XSto 3? to demand for such cotodtito »
peat orders, even a year in advance— wad. ,

STRAWBERRIES 267

come in' Had their supplies of raw material been larger and
their equipment better adapted to manufacture they could
have marketed everything they could put up
Another woman, suddenly left without support, started in,
but soon outgrew her kitchen, migrated to an outbuilding,
outgrew that, built a small factory, enlarged it, contracted
for freshly gathered fruit by the ton direct from growers
of desired varieties and at the time of my last visit, though
the season was scarcely half over, had her store rooms
packed with more than $100,000. ( I ) worth of preserved,
canned, jellied, jammed and other classes of goods' Most
of her products are sold through “fancy” grocery stores,
though much also goes direct to regular, personal customers
If the goods are only good enough — as hers were and are
— they need only be tasted to assure a steady demand at
reasonable prices But the quality must always be kept up
to standard

Besides all these are specialties such as lily bulbs, ever-
bearing strawberries, pussy willows, Japanese lantern plant,
ornamental gourds, madeira and cinnamon vine tubers,
straw flowers, culinary herbs, holly grown from cuttings,
bittersweet vine, winterberiy ( Ilex vertictUata), tigridia,
snowberry, montbretia and many others.

45

STRAWBERRIES

The three essentials that should never be overlooked before going into
the culture of strawberries are, first, the best variety suited to the
soil, strong, vigorous, pure bred plants, second, a well drained and
prepared soil, and third, thorough and frequent cultivation

Hugh Findlay,

In Practical Gardening.

N o fruit is easier to grow, quicker to yield a crop, surer
of a demand, or more likely to be profitable than the
strawberry. 11 'Whether you have only a backyard or whether
* Thus chapter has been edited by Mr W Lea Allen ot Salisbury, Maryland,
General Manager of The W F Allen Company, which for nearly fifty years
has specialized m the testing of strawberry varieties and the production of
plants

268

FIVE ACRES

your farm is measured by the square mile your strawberry
“patch” should be at least large enough to supply all the
fruit your family needs, and if your funds are so limited
that you must make every cent work, the strawberry should
be your first choice as a money fruit crop, because even at
the height of the picking season the supply is seldom equal
to the demand and because prices, no matter how low, are
usually surer to be m excess of cost than are those of any
other fruit. To make strawberries pay, however, it is es-
sential that the plants be well grown, yield sufficiently and
the fruit be properly handled.

Naturally you will want to know what to expect from a
specific area. According to the United States Department
of Agriculture the average American yield is about 1,800
quarts to the acre, but there’s no sense in having such small
crops Commercial growers, on a field scale, get 5,000 to

10.000 quarts to the acre and specialists, growing in small
areas, have attained yields that would make the acre rate

20.000 quarts' Of course, such high yields are attained only
by intensive methods and exceptional attention to details
I mention them merely to indicate the possibilities and to

show the importance of good care . ,

As costs and prices differ widely it is safer to calenbtem

the total time required to grow a
and nrices may be used to estimate local costs Th y
Kentucky atrartay ?”* STS?

more than 2 400 quarts, 100 horse-hours and 300 man

TJi It “ though nyyinmng

of profits of $1,000 or even more an acre ^been reaped
and though $500 may be easily attained by expenenc«I
growers in favorable years, you must complete

drouths and other adverse factors may succes-

failure any yeaa-perhaps or

sion — so if you can average $100“' KLine several
you should be pleased because you wjU Higher

times as much as growers of most other crq* t ^
averages may be expected from areas o r

2-3

STRAWBERRIES 269

provement has been so startling that, of more than 400 vari-
eties I tested up to and about 1,900, only four are included
among the 46 catalogued by a nursery which for nearly
SO years has specialized m the production of strawberry
plants, and which it grows by the million. The policy of this
nursery has long been to discard all varieties that it has
proved to be inferior to the ones it catalogues and to point
out the failings or weak points as well as the merits of each
one it lists

Some varieties called pistillate or imperfect will not set
fruit when planted alone The reason is that their stamens
are either aborted or missing altogether so cannot produce
the pollen upon which fruit formation depends. To make
them fruitful, perfect kinds must be planted near-by — not
less than one row of perfect to five of imperfect In my opin-
ion there are so many excellent kinds to choose among and
alternating the rows so often causes trouble at harvest time
that I would confine my choice to perfect kinds Catalogues
indicate perfect ones by “P” or “Per” and the imperfect
as “Imp” or “Pis ”

The best variety I have grown is Premier Concerning it
this nursery says in part “It has given more general satis-
faction and has been a better money maker over a wide
territory than any other variety ever introduced. For home
garden, local market, or for shipping moderate distances
it has outclassed them all ”

Since 1915 when Premier was introduced at least a score
of really excellent varieties have been selected from perhaps
a thousand offered Of these two of the most notable are
Fairfax and Dorsett which originated with the Department
of Agriculture As yet I have not had opportunity to fruit
them but such is my confidence in the judgment of the
nursery referred to that I quote “Where they have been tried,
Dorsett and Fairfax outclass Premier as berries for the home
garden, local market and for shipping, just as completely
as Premier outclassed the others when it was first introduced
We believe they will maintain this superiority over most of
the territory where Premier has been so good ”

I would not quote the above statements if I could not
indorse them Nevertheless, I strongly advise everybody who

270

FIVE ACRES

grows these varieties for home use or sale to grow other WnHe
JrK* because differences of cnJhtatJfJrt
l 1 ?! 3 °f not be favorable and because
imriff 1 ] always be to have the best that will do well
under local conditions For these two outlets you should
also include at least one of the everbearing varieties to sud-
ply dessert fruit hi late summer and autumn

Among varieties that have done well for me are Big Toe
(abas, Joe Johnson, New Hope and Joe), Glen Mary,
Marshall, Aroma, Chesapeake (Lateberry), William Beit
Gandy, and Orem (Frostkmg). These cover a season from
earliest to latest— 3 to 5 weeks in early summer Others
highly and widely recommended are Blakemore, Bdlmar
and Southland (for the South)— all developed bv the De-
partment of Agriculture

Everbearing varieties have two bearing seasons each year,
one in spnng, the other in late summer and fall The crop is
usually too light to be of commercial value, but the second
crop makes a welcome addition to the home bill of fare and
often finds ready sale to personal customers and at roadside
stands; but unless you have one or the other of these out-
lets it would be wise to feel your way before planting them
extensively

Of all the everbearing varieties I have grown Champion
(Progressive) is of best quality but the berries are smaller
and much less abundant than those of Mastodon, concerning
which the nursery already quoted says it "is good enough in
all respects to stand out among everbearers just as Premier
has done among spnng bearing kinds ”

Last year, under exceptionally unfavorable conditions
(gravelly soil and unavoidable shade much of the day) my
plants grown by the hill system averaged about a quart each
for the season Under more favorable conditions I feel sure
that this average could be easily exceeded
When plants must be bought to start a strawberry “bed”
it is advisable to get them from a nursery which specializes
in strawberry plants rather than to buy from a neighbor or
even from a "general” nursery After a start has been made
many northern growers dig plants from their own beds to
r pnkp new ones; others buy from the nursery In the South

271

STRAWBERRIES

renewal of stock from the northern nurseries at least every
two years is necessary because the rest period of the south-
ern winter is not long enough to maintain the vitality of
the stock

In my opinion digging one’s own plants is an undesirable
practise because, 1, digging and cleaning the plants demands
skilful work, is costly and likdy to be done improperly by
inexperienced hands; 2, the consumption of valuable time
due to unhandy methods of digging and unskilled trimming;
3, probable delay of digging due to unfavorable weather or
soil condition, 4, likelihood of getting plants inferior to those
bought from a specialist nursery, because diseased or in-
fested with insects; 5, the loss of berries such plants would
bear the same year; 6, probable injury to die plants near
the ones dug but left in the bed.

On the other hand, the advantages of buying from the
specialist nursery are the reverse of those just ennumerated
and also include the certainties, 1, of getting high grade
plants trimmed properly and ready for planting, 2, of hav-
ing them arrive early— dependent only upon early place-
ment of the order, 3, of having plants with straightened
roots, thus favoring speed and correct planting. Such plants
would probably give better performance because usually
grown on lighter soil than that of the bed to which trans-
planted In short, purchased plants will probably cost less
and produce larger crops than those dug from one’s own bed
However, no higher price should be paid for so-called “pedi-
greed” plants because these have been proved to be no more
productive than “unpedigreed” ones.

You need not hesitate to give specialist strawberry nur-
series your orders Their packing methods are so scientific
that they can ship by express from coast to coast and yet —
barring unreasonable delay in transportation — guarantee
every plant to be in prime condition on arrival. If die plants
are dried out and wilted soak them until roots and leaves
are thoroughly revived and plumped up, several hours if
necessary.*

As the strawberry is a perishable fruit it must be picked

* From this point forward many of the statements have been condensed
or adapted from Circular 64 of the West Virginia Experiment Station

l

272

FIVE ACRES

as soon as ripe and disposed oi without delay or rough
treatment Planting should, therefore be near a market
large enough to absorb the crop, provide plenty of cheap
picking labor and avoid a long haul over rough roads Con-
versely, it should not be on too high priced land since inter-
est may run away with profits

Statements concerning site (Chapter 8) apply with spe-
cial force to the strawberry Make sure of good air and water
drainage, a southern exposure for earliness, a northern one
for lateness and protection of the blossoms from sprang
frosts and heaving of the plants by alternate freezing and
thawing during winter

Any medium fertile, well drained soil with high water-
holding capacity is suitable; but since the crop demands
considerable attention it is better policy to give it the best
land available Poor land is sure to be disappointing An
ideal soil is a sandy loam underlaid with day because this
gives a warm surface easily worked and a subsoil retentive
of moisture and fertility Sandy soils are warm, suited to
plant production, and early fruit, but likely to lack fertility
and moisture-holding capacity Addition of orgamc matter
may correct the latter fault Clay soils are colder therefore
better adapted for late crop production Thar worst fault
is that they may bake during hot weather It seems slightly
acid soils are preferable to neutral ones Perennial weeds
such as quack-grass should be eradicated before the plants
are set, else they will cause trouble if not destroy the patdi
Fields devoted to hoed crops are likely to have few weeds
and glass and to be economical to cultivate However, a rank
growth of grass and weeds when plowed under while still
lush and green and before seed matures is valuable for

hU Never should strawberries follow a grass sod ofseveral
years’ standing because cutworms, wire worms, but
ciallv white grubs (larva of May beetles), will be present
to Ztioy the roots A pure clover sod is safe as it * nrt
infested with white grubs As 1,000 !

ESriwisla’S

K-

STRAWBERRIES 273

ment should aim to augment the water-holding capacity of
the soil

When possible, an inter-tilled crop should precede straw-
berries, preferably for two years at least, to kill weeds,
starve out the insects mentioned, put the soil in good physical
condition and betray wet places that need drainage A heavy
dressing of 10 to 30 tons of manure the year before straw-
berry planting is the best method of increasing the humus
content of the soil and of adding fertility. It may be applied
to the preceding crop or in the fall

Green manures such as rye and vetch (together) sown after
the cultivated crop will also help build up the humus content
(Chapter 29) especially when manure is not available When
cover crops are not used, fall plowing 7" to 8" deep the
year before plant setting is desirable, provided the furrows
are left rough until spring, then disked, harrowed and ferti-
lized as early as possible Most soils will be benefited by a
dressing of 250 to 300 pounds of superphosphate and small
doses of potash muriate (50 to 100 pounds) to the acre
harrowed in at this time

When lime is necessary for the cover crop it should be
applied at least a year before strawberry planting because
this crop seems to resent its presence if too prominent.
Better be safe and make it three years.

If the ground is not ready when the plants arrive heel
them in temporarily in a well drained, shaded spot and in well
prepared soil To do this make a V-shaped trench about 6"
deep, spread out the plants so the roots of each are in dose
contact with the earth then firm the soil well around them
but not over the crowns Other rows may be made 2" or 3"
away from and parallel to the first one Be sure to keep each
variety by itself and properly labeled.

Strawberries are best planted in early spring Conditions
are then most favorable and the most nearly perfect stand
may be secured When necessary to plant in the fall the
plants should be well mulched to prevent or reduce losses
by heaving

By marking the ground before plant setting the rows may
be kept straight and subsequent care favored. A hand-
drawn marker is best for a small patch; a horse-, or tractor-

strawberries

275

The sooner a Ml
er will be the yield

the following year d with hedge row

Larger bernes but an d cultiva-
and hill systems BM, so “ e or a u run-

tton easier, oistof « {ancy ” berries often offset the

IJ

iers necessary, uuv m ,
extra work and smaller yield.

Fig 59 Stare berry plant setting Lett, crown placed too high, plant will
dij out Right, cniwn too low, plant will rot Center, correct, crown at
ground tad

In the single hedge row system plants are set 15” to 18"
asunder in rows 24" to 30" apart Each plant is allowed
to form two runners which are placed in the row, one on
each side of the parent plant The final result is a single
straight row with plants 5" or 6" asunder. In the double
hedge row a slightly greater distance is allowed between
rows and each plant allowed to make six or eight plants two
of which are placed m the row as before, the others snaced
on each side of the parent plant so the final EEnEi
Sts °r 6 apart and about the same distances between

Plants in the hill system are set 12" to 24" asunder in

276

FIVE ACRES

rows 30" to 48" apart, but preferably in checks 18" to 24"

arecu t° off « ? V ° r whedhoe cross cultivation All runners
are cut on as soon as seen so as to increase the

strength of the original plants This increased size does not
JJjS?- make “P 5 ield for the smaller total number of
^ants in the bed, but the fruits average much larger and
thus command fancy prices °

During the first season care of the plants includes til-
lage, flower removal in all systems and either training or
removal of the runners in the hedgerow or hill systems and

fig 60 Strawberry plant showing weQ developed runner

thinning plants of free growing varieties in matted rows
Cultivation should begin immediately after planting and be
repeated at weekly or 10-day intervals until fall. It should
always be in the same direction with the matted row and
hedge row systems, but in different ones with the hill sys-
tem The object of one direction is to keep the runners in
the rows instead of spreading them too widely. Placing plants
where wanted and hand hoeing to keep down weeds dose to
the plants will be necessary. When the first hoeing is being
done covered crowns should be uncovered Later when run-
ners appear these should be anchored with dods or pebbles
where wanted They soon take root Excess runners may be
cut with a sharpened S" disc run between the rows at the
desired distance from the row centers
When allowed, plants will produce a few flowers and
fruits the first season, but at the cost of vigor and runner
production To have enough plants for the next season al!

STRAWBERRIES

277

flower stems should be pinched off, except that those on
everbearing varieties should be allowed to remain after about
July 1 so as to have fruit later in the season

About a month after the plants are set 125 to 150 pounds
of nitrate of soda to the acre should be top dressed to help
runner growth during the first season and a second dose in
mid August to increase and strengthen fruit bud formation
which begins in early September A third application of the
same amount is sometimes given in the spring of the fruit-
ing season, but may not be needed If the bed is to be re-
newed, 250 to 300 pounds of a complete fertilizer high in
nitrogen should be applied after the crop has been gathered.

In my opinion the best materials for mulching are buck-
wheat straw between the rows and buckwheat hulls around
the plants, the former spread 3" or 4" deep (at the rate of
about three tons to the acre), the latter about 2" deep
around the plants, both being applied after the ground has
frozen hard enough to bear a team and a loaded wagon
These materials are usually free from weed seeds, especially
of perennials, the straw becomes brittle during winter, soon
breaks up by tramping pickers’ feet and is easily plowed
or dug under after berry harvest The hulls work well
among' the plants which they not only protect but keep
cleaner than do most other mulches In addition they have
an appreciable fertilizer value when they decay

Shredded com stover when obtainable at low cost is al-
most as good as buckwheat hulls Both may be spread with
a large scoop shovel as evenly and as deeply as desired.
Marsh or salt hay, though harder to apply, may be used for
several years if removed at the close of the picking season,
thoroughly dried, and stored under cover or out of contort
with the soil Oat, wheat and rye straw are less desi rable,
harder to spread and to plow under and are almost sure to
contain weed seed The most undesirable materials are hay
and litter from the horse stable because these are sure to
introduce weeds and grass

The time to remove mulch vanes accor din g to whether
late or early berries are wanted To get late ones the mulch
should be left on until the leaves show slight blanching no
longer The loose material is then raked off the plants and

278

FIVE ACRES

tramped down between the rows, the small stuff left among
the plants New foliage will grow through the thm cover-
ing left on the rows

Irrigating strawberries will insure the crop m dry seasons
and increase it in others, but the cost of installation is usu-
ally warranted only when other crops are to be grown on the
same land so as to apportion the expense In a permanent
business it should more than pay for itself over a period of

years

Harvesting lasts from two to five weeks, depending on the
season and the succession of varieties It starts about a
month after the blossoms appear The fruit is usually picked
in quart boxes placed in four-, six- or eight-box earners It
is mar keted in 24-, 32- or 48-box crates Many growers
withhold Vii a box to be paid to the pickers who stay the
entire season Otherwise some of them might leave when the

berries become scarce Enough pickers should be employed
to pick over the field once m two days Picking should not
start until the dew has dried off the plants nor continue later
th an noon Bernes should not be picked while wet
A competent supervisor should see that the following pre-
cautions are observed. 1 Fruit should be picked only when
properly ripe For home use and roadside market it should
be mature and well colored, for near-by retail markets
it should be hard ripe and almost fully colored 2. The
patch must be picked clean at each picking Over-ripe and
misshapen berries must be picked off mid discarded 3 " aC “
picker must stick to and finish bis assigned row 4 The fruit
should be picked with a Vi" ox VJ' of stem, and only a few
berries should be held in the hand at a time S Boxes must
be well filled 6 Plants must not be knelt on 7 The fruit
must be kept out of the sun after picking, preferably in a
shelter shed near the patch, the berries being taken there to
be packed as soon as the carrier is full
The best method of marketing the crop will depend upon
the location In most localities selling in a local market wfil
be best This applies especially to roadside marketog Pan-
grading the fruit and arranging the top layer attractively

° ft SS d mMt a commercial growers prefer’ to plow under

STRAWBERRIES

279

the plant s after only one crop has been gathered and imme-
diately to plant a late vegetable crop such as cabbage or a
cover crop ‘such as crimson clover, many others crop their
matted row beds a second time The best way to do this is
to renew the beds once If insects and diseases have been

Fig 61 Strawberry bed renewal a, Matted rows and mulch before treat-
ment, b, tops cut and burned with part of mulch, c, strip plowed at each
side of matted row, d, new foliage on renovated plants, runners will develop
later

very bad, renewing even the first time is not advisable. The
best time to renew is immediately after the last picking The
usual method consists of the following steps.

Most of the mulch is raked off the field and either made
into artificial manure or compost If infested with insects it
should be burned The foliage is next mowed with the cutter
bar of the hay mower set high enough to avoid cutting the
crowns The chief purpose of mowing is to control foliage
diseases When the mowed leaves are dry and when a fairly
strong breeze ^is blowing in a safe direction the dry material

280

FIVE ACRES

is fired in several places on the windward side so as to bum
rapidly across the patch If the plants are too jlry, or the
mowed leaves too wet, the crowns may be injured Burning
over destroys insects and diseases, where these are not
present it need not be done

After the bed is cleaned and burned the rows must be
narrowed One method is to plow one (say the east or the
north) side of each row including the center The best width
of row to leave will depend upon local conditions and
season If the season up to the time of treatment has been
dry and seems likely thus to continue few plants will likely
form so the row should be left 12" wide or wider, if more
favorable, it may be as narrow as 6" Character of variety
alsn must be considered kinds that produce many runners
may be more closely narrowed than those that produce few
A second method, most applicable where the rows are
wide and the variety a liberal plant-former is to plow two
furrows toward each other between the rows, a second pair
down the centers of the rows and then cultivate these fur-
rows down smoothly and finely Both these methods get rid
of the old plants and favor the production of new ones
A third plan merely narrows the rows by plowing a fur-
row on each side of the rows and the spaces between
(Fig 61). As it leaves all the old plants it is less desirable
than the other two

Plants m the narrowed row are usually somewhat
crowded so some must be removed to give the next years
fruiting plants a chance to grow large and vigorous Kun-
ners begin to form soon after berry harvest

Cultivation should begin as soon as the rows are narrowed
and continue until fall A top dressing of 2S0 pounds
of nitrate of soda and super-phosphate an acre is advisable

just before the first cultivation frrmhle _

Strawberry insects and disease are usually not troubie-
some where dean tillage, rotation, correct renew ition nd
the planting of healthy stock are followed Setong plante m
Mil whichhas been in sod the previous season, and e^e
dally for several years, should always be avoided

tie white grubs are almost certain to do ^ rlo “i,hiMtion
^Where facilities are available, one or two .combination

GRAPES

281

sprays of bordeaux-lead arsenate before blossoming is in-
surance against leaf spot and chewing insects such as leaf
rollers Root aphis seldom give trouble if clean plants are
obtained and set m land not occupied by strawberries for
several years Weevil may be controlled by setting chiefly
pistillate varieties since the larvae feed on the pollen

46

GRAPES

By using the different classes of varieties of grapes for the different
latitudes, soils and purposes, there is scarcely a farm between the
Great Lakes and the Gulf but can -successfully grow grapes Of only
one or two other fruits, — the strawberry and blackberry — can as much
be said

T V Munson,

In Foundations of American Grape Culture

G rapes will thrive on every kind of soil that will grow
other cultivated crops and be more likely to yield bet-
ter under adverse conditions than any other fruit They re-
quire less space than even the smallest standard fruit tree;
m fact, the area usually allowed in business orchards for a
mature peach tree (20' x 20') is greater than necessary for
six vines as grown in eastern commercial vineyards The
flowers open late in spring so are more likely than those of
, other fruits to escape frosts

Trained as described further on vines may begin to bear
the year after planting, when managed according to usual
commercial practise a year longer is usual I have repeatedly
gathered as much as six pounds of fruit from strong vines
planted only 17 months before and 25 to 30 pounds the year
after With ordinary care vines are likdy to yield abun-
dantly for 25 years at least On one farm that I owned is a
Concord vine 45 years old that averaged more tii^n hal f
a bushel of fruit a year, though it had been so neglected that
when I bought the place I cut out a small wagon-load of
dead and worthless wood and the former owner said the

k .

282 FIVE ACRES

vine would die 1 But it bore that year and every year while
I owned the place

Red, “white” and blue varieties cover a great range of
flavors from mid August to October without storage and
. when properly stored to March or even

< /w-5" April Some varieties are especially de-
( licious as dessert, some adapted to jelly,
'I • jam or conserve, others for juice or wme

i 1/ Various European varieties grown m

\j f California make raisins No fruit plant

| t is easier to train or so adaptable to

1 all sorts of situations and styles of sup-

port. No matter how little your present
experience you may count upon being
successful after learning two funda-
mental principles and may grow choicer

f «r grapes than are usually sold in the

markets and stores
Having decided upon varieties suited
/ to your locality order the vines as early
’*"* in the year as possible so as to get the
kinds you want First class one year
vines are generally better than those
two years old and far better than still
older ones which not only cost more

X but are dower to bear fruit because of
the loss of roots On arrival handle
them as suggested for other nursery
stock (Chapter 39 )

Give the vines the best soil ana tne
sunniest site at your disposal When the
Intr 62 Two trank soil is poor or the site trying (as against
gr2 vine Sn tied a building) dig a hole as wide as a wash-
to stake and “tip- tub and somewhat deeper for each vine,
pnched at arrows & p&ck „ more of bonffi m the

bottom and fill the hole wilh good sod before planting Th
bones will supply plant food as *ey decay
After the plants are planted

sstf .was " - r— - the

-V.

GRAPES 283

plant food so the new shoots will be sturdier than if all or
a larger number of buds were left to grow.

As soon as the strongest shoot gets woody at its base (in
early summer) shorten the weak ones to only one joint and
one leaf Until then it may be easily broken off, hence the
advisability of leaving two or three shoots temporarily By
allowing each of the temporary ones to retain one joint and
one leaf after cutting them back, the main stem will not be
wounded and drying or dying will be avoided In this
method of treatment lies the secret of gathering fruit the
year after planting — but on only strong vines.

Fruit is borne on the green shoots and on no other or
older part. The shoots develop from buds formed in the
angles of the leaf stems. Where the growing season is short
these buds are developed during the previous summer They
are conspicuous during winter at the joints on one year old
canes Occasionally similar buds may appear on older wood
but these may be disregarded except when it is desired to
have new branches or trunks develop to take the place of
old, decrepit or diseased ones where these buds are located.
Sometimes a second or even a third set of shoots may de-
velop and even bear fruit in a single season but the fruit
will not ripen unless the season is long enough

Most pruning and training depend upon the use of buds
formed the previous year From these arise green shoots
which consist of joints, leaves, tendrils and flower clusters
from which last the fruit is developed The tendrils and the
flower (or fruit) clusters present gradations between them-
selves thus proving that one is a modification of the other.

Each green shoot has one chance — only one — to bear
fruit If it fails it never has another; the buds it bears tal-p
up this function and produce fruit on their green shoots

Because only green shoots bear the fruit, the fruit-bearing
parts of untrained vines get farther and farther away from
the roots each year The result is that each successive year
the vine wastes unnecessary amounts of energy and plant
food in pumping sap from roots to leaves and elaborated
food back froin leaves to roots so that in nature and
neglected vines little or no fruit is produced. This is where
man steps in and compels the vine to produce liberally by

284

FIVE ACRES

pruning off parts that have survived their usefulness He re-
duces tile distance between root and branch and forces the
vines to focus their attention upon fruit production The re-
moval of excess parts also conserves plant food so that the
clusters of fruit are larger and the berries both bigger and of
improved quality

When these two principles are understood and acted upon,
grape vines will produce abundant high quality fruit eveiy
year no matter how their parts are placed on supports How-
ever, when trained upon posts the fruit is often injured by
being whipped about by wind So this method should usually
be avoided.

Two kinds of canes are worthless— puny shoots often
found on young, weak, neglected and veiy old vines, and
“bull” canes, the thick, long-jointed, burly fellows that often
grow 20' in a single season The canes that produce best are
those of medium diameter — about the thickness of an ordi-
nary lead pencil

On arbors and summer houses more work is required to
prune the vines than by any other method of training Un-
less special care is taken to develop and tram branches low
down on the sides such structures will become bare below
and the roofs too densely overgrown Thus most of the fruit
can be reached only with a ladder and pruning will be a

tedious and difficult task . . ,

On such supports the best way is to lead one mam trunk
diTPrt to the peak and each winter cut back the canes along
this trunk to short stubs (called spurs) of only two joints.
The shoots developed from these spur buds wdl require ty-
ing where their foliage is needed to supply shade for the m-

te When trained against walls the vines should be on trel-
lises, not fastened directly to the walls The trdhses shouW
be such that they may be lifted free of the walls andlaidon
the ground when the walls need pamtmg, which is best do

during the dormant season. f

Thp Eurooean varieties grown on the Pacific Coast #

SiSTor r “ ! °°

Fig 63 Before and after pruning grape vine trained on four-arm
Kniffin system (From photos )

286

FIVE ACRES

they are better adapted than American varieties to walls
and other restricted spaces

After having tried various styles of trellises and training
I have discarded wood because it is short lived and the
framework loaded with vines is too likely to be blown down
by wind or to break when loaded with fruit

Perhaps the Kmffin (Fig 63) is the most popular sys-
tem of training used in the eastern half of the United States
and for American varieties In its modifications it meets eco-
nomic considerations and differs from the Munson method
mainly m having its two wires one above the other instead
of at the ends of cross-arms The principles of pruning are
the same

As in ordinary farm fencing heavy end posts of rot-resist-
ing wood, such as locust, cedar or white oak, 8' long or
somewhat longer are set well below the local frost lme,
thoroughly braced and tamped to withstand the strain of
wind and fruit The intermediate, lighter posts should be
7%' long and set similarly but not braced Usually they are
spaced 30' apart with two vines planted each S' from the
posts and one midway

Number 10 or 11 galvanized wires are generally used, the
former preferred because heavier and therefore more du-
rable The upper one is placed near the tops of the posts, the
lower 2' below. Both are securely fastened to one of the end
posts but not tightly to any of the others, the staples being
merely to keep them in position, not to P^ the f ^t
movement necessarily due to expansion and contrartion due
to temperature changes If too tightly fastened tbeposts
will be pulled out of place At the loose end enough mre
should be left to allow for this movement and a device pro-
vided to take up the slack during warm rwte Various
types are sold by garden supply stores and nurseries tha

SP S?form oftK Kmffin system requires two upnghtmam

tnrnS whTch start at or near the ground, c^er^ng to

the lower, the other to the upper ^Si-

orily one trunk but has a pair of „ MtfeifanV
•ag in opposite directions on each wire There is little any

difference in yield > ‘

>o

GRAPES

287

In the first case two strong shoots (instead of the one de-
scribed under the Munson system) are developed from the
newly planted vine during the first season if possible As
they grow they must be tied loosdy to stakes in order to

fie 64 Munson system of grape training Above, vine ttnpruned,
below, vine pruned and arms fastened to lowest wire (From photos )

make straight trunks Preferably when one reaches the
height of the lower wire its tip is pinched and the other is
similarly treated when it reaches the upper wire
*' Generally it is more convenient to erect the trellis during
the second spring or the first fall after planting and to use

288

FIVE ACRES

only 6' or 7' stakes the first year Usually pinching encour-
ages the development of branches of which the uppermost
two on each trunk should be trained in opposite directions
on the wires All other shoots should be removed, preferably
by pinching just beyond the first leaf.

When branch development does not occur the first season
it will start in the spring of the second Then development
of (he pairs and the treatment just mentioned will be neces-
sary In the former case several fruit-beanng shoots may be
expected from one or more of the arms; m the latter the
shoots may bear fruit but not be branched at the lower

joints

The style of training I prefer is the Munson or canopy
system (Fig. 64 ) With it: 1 The work of pruning, spray-
ing, tying and harvesting is breast-high or higher, thus pre-
venting backache 2 Currants, gooseberries, black rasp-
berries or other low growing plants that do best in partial
shade may be planted alternately in the same rows with the
vines, thus saving space 3 It is easy to pass from row to
row beneath the vines instead of having to go around the
ends 4 It affords excellent distribution of heat, light and
air to foliage and fruit 5 There is less resistance to wind
than when the vines are trained on a vertical plane and
hence less likelihood of their being blown down 6 The fruit
is well shielded from the sun by foliage 7 The trellises are
easy to make and, 8, their cost is low

To make the Munson trellis, use posts 5" or largo: at the
top for the ends, long enough to be below the local frost toe
and S' or 6' above ground Line posts should be lighter but
as long and as deeply buried as the a* They niMta
enough apart to place three vines between, i e , __

to be planted Iff apart, the usual distance f°r stronggovung
vines The vines nearest the posts are placed half their dis
tance from the posts — S' m the above case f

Across the top of each end post is nailed a crosspiece of
2" x 4" scantling 2' long and on the tops < o E the i fine posts
l"x4" pieces Previous to muling, a notch % deep iscut
1 " froineach end and on one side When nailing the >cross-
LJSoTitheMSts these notches are turned upward for the
upper tedtewmss to rest in them without stapling The low-

GRAPES

289

est wire is stapled 6" below the top not too tightly to all the
posts except one of the end posts The crosspieces need not be
put np until the spring of the third year as the vines wdl not
reach them until then

After the posts have been placed, run a number 11 galva-
nized wire (copper is better but more costly) from end to end
6" below the tops of the posts, fasten securely at one end
and provide a tightening device at the other.

Fig 65 Fan system of grape training left, vine before pruning, right, as
Dinned (From nhotos )

The vines having grown one season on poles are pruned
in winter to only one cane If this reaches above the wire
(after the wire is in place) cut only the excess and tie the
cane to the wire If not long enough to reach the wire, cut
it back a half to two-thirds, if very weak, cut to only two
or three joints, each with a strong bud In the last case treat
the new shoots as during the first year.

Kmffin and Munson winter pruning are the same — a re-
newal system Each winter the two year old and older wood
(except the trunks) is cut and replaced by ripened canes
of the previous season’s growth. Each system makes neces-
sary only one cut of each arm near the head of the tr unk.
Before cutting, however, the renewal arms must be chosen
and freed from attachment to the other canes so that when
the cut arms are pulled off the trellis these renewal arms

290

FIVE ACRES

shall not be broken or otherwise injured These new arms
should start as near the trunk as possible Often as the vines
grow older it may be necessary to get nd of accumulated
wood where the arms have started In such cases a cane may
be cut back to one or two joints From the buds on this
spur new shoots will develop The best one of these should
be chosen to become the new arm m the following spring
The other must be cut off 6 ^ °

. Whatever system of training chosen the shoots may be
tied to bean poles during the first season The second year
the posts and wires of the trellis should be put in pV<> Or,
better, they may be erected in the fall of the first year when
work is usually slack. In commercial vineyards the vines
are usually allowed to sprawl upon the ground during the
first season, but they cannot thus receive the attention they
deserve and as a result bearing seldom starts before the
third year

Shoots that develop the first year from the lower buds on
the main cane (now called a trunk) often bear one to three
dusters of grapes. Commercial growers recommend cutting
off these shoots to strengthen the vine but I have never
noticed the slightest weakening of any vine on which I
have allowed them to mature For I believe that a vine
ambitious to set fruit knows more about its resources than
any human does; so why should I interfere with its plans,
especially when these lead to a gift of choice fruit I

Summer pruning, though formerly advised, has proved
inadvisable, so don’t do any

During the winter of the second year the Kmffin trellis
must be completed by stretching the upper wire from end
to end To complete the Munson trellis two wires are simi-
larly stretched m the notches on the crosspieces, fastened at
one end and provided with a tightener at the other Then
every stub and cane except the ones wanted for arms must
be cut dose to the trunk and the arms shortened to eight or
ten buds The shoots that spring from these buds should
yidd two to four or even five dusters, so it is easy to calcu-
late at pruning time how much fruit to count on the follow-
ing fall As the shoots develop they are allowed to form a
“canopy” in the Munson system

291

BUSH AND CANE FRUITS

In the winter of the third and subsequent years the arms
attached to the lowest wire and all inferior canes are cut
off and only the strong renewal canes left These selected
canes must be carefully shortened as already described and
fastened to the wires.

47

BUSH AND CANE FRUITS

Bush-iruits occupy a place of their own in the pomological field.
They do not meet the universal demand that does the strawberry, and
cannot be grown on such an extensive scale under most conditions
Each kind is a favonte of some persons, and all are relished by
most people

Fred W Card,

In Busk-Fnats.

B ush and cane berries offer better opportunities to a
larger number of people than do any other lines of
fruit growing Everybody is hungry for them They furnish
a great range of Savors and a wide variety of uses— -dessert,
canning, jam, jdly, juice, wine, etc
By proper selection of varieties and the application of
simple methods of culture their season may be made to ex-
tend from June until October. No other fruits except the
strawberry begin to bear so young — the second season after
planting Some bear more or less even the first year and
reach full bearing the third or fourth Under good care all
continue productive for 5 to 10 years or even longer. They
need comparatively small space, are of simplest culture
and are therefore specially adapted to limited areas Still
more important, they are the fruits that should be chosen
first to supply the home table and to sell locally because
they may be allowed to reach the perfection of full ripe-
ness before being gathered. The ease of their culture often
encourages those who start with them to branch out and
grow grapes and tree fruits, so that in due time the family
will get most, if not all its fruit, from the home place and
during most if not all the year.

BUSH AND CANE FRUITS 293

loo long becomes woody In this condition it is slow to decay
The objection to vetch is that it is almost sure to clamber
upon the berry plants

Where the growth of the berry plants is lusty, nitrogen
is not needed so no legume should be sown nor any nitrog-
enous fertilizer applied In such cases it is better to use
buckwheat, barley, oats, rape or some other crop sure to be
killed by winter Where a winter legume such as crimson
clover or hairy vetch is not desired but nitrogen is heeded
soy beans are good to sow during June Though killed by
frost they add abundance of nitrogen to the soil

Red raspberries won’t stand soil acidity They are bene-
fited by dressings of wood ashes or applications of hydrated
lime once in four to six or seven years Black cap rasp-
berries are almost the opposite; they prefer slightly acid
soils Blackberries, currants and gooseberries are much the
same, though each may be helped by lime if the soil is very
sour

Though most berry planting is done in spring as soon as
the ground can be worked, currants and gooseberries are
best planted m the fall after their leaves have dropped be-
cause these plants start to develop new roots very early
Probably 95% of the failures in spring setting them is due
to planting late Blackberries and red raspberries may be
planted in either fall or spring but black caps and dew-
berries should not be planted in the fall because being
“crown” plants and shallow rooted they will likely be
heaved out of the ground by alternate thawing and freezing
during winter

Where horse or garden tractor cultivation is to be done
in only one direction the popular distance for setting plants
of all but blackberries is 3' x 6'; where cross cultivation is
to be done, 4' x 4' or 5' x 5' The latter is decidedly the bet-
ter distance because it reduces hand work Blackberries be-
ing large growing are generally set 5' x T Currants, goose-
berries, dewbernes and black cap raspberries, which do not
propagate by means of suckers, make “stools” or “bushes”
and “stay put” Allow 5' or more between bushes

Red raspberries and blackberries, which have the sucker-
ing habit, are usually allowed to develop narrow "hedge

295

BUSH AND CANE FRUITS

shortened somewhat Usually nothing is needed by currants
and gooseberries unless their stems are spindly, when they
ma y be shortened to thicken them up. They will need no
pruning until the following spring when rampant growth
may be cut back (Fig 66.)

Whether or not the bramble fruits are benefited by pinch-
ing is a disputed point. Some growers, depending on their
preferences, pinch off the tip of each young stem as it

Fie 66 Diagram of raspberry cane, onpruned and pruned (From photos )

reaches 18" to 30". Shoots thus checked elongate some-
what but devdop stout, sturdy branched, stocky stems
which need no staking or trellising to keep them off the
ground But it is claimed they do not bear quite so much
fruit as the stems that develop naturally Experiments to
test this matter have given conflicting results To do this
pinching only the finger and thumb are needed — no knife
or other tool.

Cutting out the bramble fruit canes after the fruit has
been gathered in July or August is better than leaving them
until winter. These canes will die then anyway, they ob-
struct light and air, become breeders of disease and insects,
and therefore are a menace to the young canes. Moreover
they are easier to cut in summer because softer than in the
following winter when they are dry.

With currants and gooseberries the case is different But

296

FIVE ACRES

though the steins of these plants may live for perhaps man y
years they bear poorer and less fruit each year after they
are four years old, so during mid summer, after fruit harvest,
most growers cut out those stems that have borne three
tunes At the same time they get rid of (he puny yo ung
shoots that come from the bases of the bushes and leave
only the two or three stoutest new shoots as renewals The
bushes thus consist of eight to ten stems each after pruning
These practises maintain the bushes m greatest vigor and
highest productivity of choice fruit
After the first year the spring pruning of all bush and
cane fruits consists m removing puny shoots, getting rid of
suckers and leaving only the two to five strongest canes m
the black raspberry and dewberry stools, making narrow
hedge rows of red raspberry and blackberry rows and then
shortening the branches of all these bramble fruits

The most important point of bramble fruit pruning is to
avoid cutting branches on the canes back too far, and thus
reducing the chances of fruit production Varieties differ
somewhat as to the positions of their fruit buds Seasons
also modify bearing Therefore it is advisable to postpone
the shortening until the blossom buds can be recognized as
they develop Then there can be no mistake, for one can see
how much bearing wood is being left The larger the num-
ber of blossoms that remain, the smaller the size of the
fruits For specially large fruits the number of flower buds
must be reduced This concentrates the available food in the
remaining fruits It also tends to make the new canes
stronger, favors vigor and greater productiveness the follow-

1111 Currants and gooseberries being hardy require no winter
protection, though a mulch of buckwheat straw, cornstafes
or other loose material is helpful when die Plantation has
been fall plowed In many sections die bramble fruits we
more or less tender, some varieties being subject to frost,
others hardy, but both affected by the chararter of the
previous summer and fall Mulching is a help, but
sections protection of another sort is given A fnvon y
is to bend and fasten down the canes after thsleav
dropped in the fall and to cover them with earth When this

BUSH AND CANE FRUITS 297

is done the earth must be removed in spring before growth
starts, otherwise the canes will suffer.

Damage from insects and diseases may be prevented to
a large extent by timely attention The currant worm which
also attacks gooseberry bushes is easily destroyed by spray-
ing the lower parts of the bushes with arsenate of lead
shortly after the first leaves form The eggs of the first
brood are laid on the under sides of the leaves near the
ground. For aphis nicotine sulphate or pyrethrum extract is
satisfactory, provided it is applied before the leaves become
much crumpled, as they do when these insects attack them
Always it is important to spray from below upward because
the eggs of the former and the insects themselves of the lat-
ter are located on the under sides of the leaves An angle
nozzle is a great help in doing this work

Gooseberry mildew may be prevented by spraying with
Bordeaux mixture Begin when the berries are as large as
little peas and repeat at intervals of two weeks. The stains
may be removed by dipping the berries in vinegar then
rinsing in water and drying then in the wind.

Though some diseases of bramble fruits are apparently
incurable no one should fear them or the insects that attack:
the bramble fruits, because timely attention will prevent
their spread. These diseases are seldom seriously trouble-
some and with the few exceptions may be kept in check by
spraying with Bordeaux mixture applied the first time while
the blossom buds are small and the second soon after the
petals have fallen or before the berries have formed Orange
rust attacks only weak plants but may be kept from spread-
ing by digging up and immediately burning affected plants
whenever discovered These are easily recognized because
the leaves become stunted and orange colored on the under
sides.

The insects that attack the bramble fruits are mostly
borers whose presence may be detected by the wilting of
the affected parts These should be cut off and burned at
once Occasionally the leaves are eaten by caterpillars or
slugs Arsenate of lead will kill them or hydrated lime
dusted on while the plants are dewy may be used for the latter

How many plants of each kind to order is a matt e r for

298

FIVE ACRES

i because P“PJe differ so much in their

. *5 The easiest way t0 Judge Is to reckon from kn ™“ n

jndds Well managed red currant bushes have yielded mwe

£Si 2 i?°? ndS; black .™s more than 10 ttdTSS
bushes IS. In commercial plantings raspberry bushes aver-
age a little more than a pound to the plant Double this is
not uncommon Blackberries planted 4'x6' apart often
average 2 pounds to the plant, sometimes three tilths as
much For calculation these maximums had better be cut
down a half or two-thirds to get probable yields
The first selection of varieties should be among those
known to be hardy and successful in the neighborhood, al-
ways giving preference to those of highest quality But
where such information is not obtainable locally the kinds
that do best in the largest region should be chosen It is ad-
visable to test at least three kinds until the one best suited
to the local conditions has been found. A dozen plants of
each variety of bramble and three or four of each kind of
gooseberry and currant are enough to make satisfactory
tests. For lists of varieties see Appendix
In the North and the East the loganberry, a cross be-
tween the red raspberry and the blackberry, is not a safe
venture because it lacks hardiness On the Pacific Coast
it is a wonderful commercial success With occasional ex-
ceptions it has been found too tender from New England
to the Rocky Mountains, but in the middle South has given
promise of at least partial success. As it is a wonderful and
delicious fruit and is as easy to grow as the dewberry it
deserves testing wherever this fruit can be grown
Bush and cane fruits may be grown for five to ten years
or even longer in the orchard between the trees (Chapter
49.) However the plants nearest the trees will become too
shaded and the soil they occupy too robbed of water and
plant food as the trees grow large, so will have to be re-
moved, a few each year after the sixth, perhaps the fifth
Such plants need not be destroyed If dug carefully and with
plenty of roots they may be planted elsewhere to form a
new berry patch

In the orchard the plants should be set in rows to cor-
respond with those of the trees in each direction so that

299

SMALL FARM FRUIT GARDENS

during the first year and perhaps the second cultivation
may be given in both directions. Thus with trees set at 2 S'
apart and the berry plants at S' there will be four rows of
berries between the trees each way When the plants in the
two middle rows begin to fail they should all be removed
and the whole area between the trees given clean cultivation
and cover cropping for the benefit of the trees.

48

SMALL FARM FRUIT GARDENS

An increase in the number of fruits demands an m crease in the number
of flower-buds, and as these are generally formed m the preceding
season, the horticulturist must extend his operations to that penod
Everyday experience teaches us that the penod of sexual reproduction
does not, as a rule, set in until the vegetative growth (production of
leaves) begins to dimmish or to cease entirely

Paul Sorauer,

In Physiology of Plants

W hether or not the farm orchard and fruit garden, as
ordinarily planted and mismanaged, is an asset or a
liability to the “average” farm and the farmer is a debated
question upon which the Missouri Experiment Station has
recently published a bulletin (No 307), not based upon
speculative ideas but upon actual records made in a three-
quarter acre orchard planted for this very purpose and
main ta i ned until 13 years old.

From the data presented it seems that efforts were madp
to imitate the hit or miss methods of the “average” farmer
and to prove them slip-shod by the actual records As this
case is unique (at least, so far as I know) a rehearsal of its
main points should serve as a warning to whoever is about
to plant a fruit garden I condense the main statements in
the following paragraphs and, in brackets, add a few com-
ments of my own

Standard nursery stock was bought. It included 12 apple,
6‘ cherry, 3 plum, 4 peach, 4 pear, 8 nut, 13 currant, 12

300

FIVE ACRES

gooseberry, SO raspberry, 25 dewberry, 25 blackberry, and
12 grape After planting, the land was cultivated for 3 years,
though from then forward it was kept m grass to prevent
further soil washing During twelfth year some potatoes
were planted Spraying, pruning and other attention was
given, not as professional fruit growers would do them but
about as they would be done by the “average” fanner

Cost items included nursery stock, harvesting, spraying
labor and materials, cultivation, pruning and training, mow-
ing and mulching, planting and staking, fertilizers and ap-
plication, but not “overhead” such as rent of land, taxes
and detenoration of tools

Though the text does not specifically state that the plant-
ing was done piecemeal during several seasons the tabulated
data show that strawberries were not planted until the fifth
year, but from the sixth to the eleventh inclusive they bore
annually Raspberries bore sparingly from the fourth to die
tenth, dewberries from the third to the tenth, blackberries
from the third to the thirteenth, grapes from the fourth
to the thirteenth, plums began during the fifth and except
for one failure continued till the thirteenth, cherries began
a year later and also missed one season until the thirteenth,
peaches bore only three times, and only one of these tunes
liberally, apples and pears did best of all— began to bear the
fifth year and bore steadily increasing amounts of fruit an-

nually

The cost of plants, planting, developing and maintaining
during the 13 years was $148 15, an average of $11 « a
year, total returns for this period were $341 66, , a gross
ann ual average of $26.28 or a net of $14 83 for the
quarter acre, or at the rate of $19 76 an acre less ov -
head This $19 76 is approximately 13 33 % on the total
cost of the orchard ($148 15) or 6 % on $326 for one year
Profits on the principal tree fruits should increase annually
for another 10 to 25or more years but cease long before
that on all the smaU fruits except grapes [With better
planning, fertilizing, inter-cropping and cover cropping, , re
Sns should have been several times the amounte mad^]
The bulletin calls specific attention to the unf
lmtrarf this orchard — on a alope which washed so badly

SMALL FARM FRUIT GARDENS 301

that cultivation was abandoned and, about the third year,
the area seeded to grass [a generally bad practise] except
where strawberries and potatoes were planted Mulching did
not prove profitable, the fruit plants suffered from weed
competition and reduced the yields of berries and grapes.
It was found unprofitable to plant Persian walnut, southern
pecan, almond and Japanese “heart-nut” because the wood
or the buds are destroyed by low temperatures

In spite of the record the bulletin declares* “Many may
think that the home orchard will require an undue amount
of work This is not true for the home orchard of one acre
or less in extent; in fact, the care amounts to so little that
no farmer, if his work is properly managed, should be handi-
capped or delayed m handling other farm enterprises.”

[Whether or not the evident mistakes were made pur-
posely is not dear from the bulletin Certain it is, however,
that they were made For instance, planting on a slope so
steep that cultivation can not be given, placing the trees
so dose together (36' for the large growing trees, 18' for
the small) that before maturity they will crowd and grow
spindly and tall and therefore difficult and costly to spray
and harvest, placing the berry plants in such ways that
cultivation can be given m only one direction instead of
two; failing to use the ground between the trees for berry
crops or vegetables or both while the trees are young and
thus paying the cost of rearmg them to bearing age or for
several years longer, planting trees not known to be hardy
or profitable, applying no fertilizer until the fourth year,
none again until the tenth and a total of only $3 90 during
the whole 13 years — induding cost of application!

[Had a plan such as described m the following para-
graphs been adopted returns would have started with
vegetables and everbearing strawberries the first season,
with “regular” strawberries and grapes the second, with
bush fruits the third, with peaches and sour cherries the
fourth, . and with other tree fruits from that time forward
according to the characteristics of the varieties and the type
of care given the trees Many a fruit grower following
similar lines has brought his tree fruits into profitable bear-
ing with "a dean slate” as to cost: indeed, has had monev

'Vys?

302 FIVE ACRES

in the bank from crops grown between the developing
trees I ]

With improved methods of cultivation, better knowledge
of pruning, harvesting and storing, etc., it is so much easier
to grow choicer fruit than one can buy, that each year more
people are planting home orchards to supply their needs
Many of the most satisfactory small orchards are developed
along the following lines

©-»— © o

IV 0

o

o

~©

If 0

o

o o o

o o

o

O O 0

o o

0

o o o

o

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SQUARE

hexagonal

rectangle

Fig 67 Methods of placing orchard trees These distances do5e

for apples, sweet cherries, pecans and walnuts (Sec Appendix J

When the available space is unlimited it is advisable to
set out the various fruits in separate areas, just c °®'
mercia! fruit growers do, planting apples in one seefcon,
pears in another, and so on This facilitates operations^
handling the various crops The only conspicuous excephon

15 rn “ tat

SMALL FARM FRUIT GARDENS 303

gooseberries), the last two groups planted adjacent to each
other

When only, say, half an acre can be devoted to fruit and
where the greatest assortment of kinds is desired the best
plan is to divide the space so each of the above goups will
ultimately have its allotted space, though while the orchard
is developing the space between the trees may be filled
temporarily by the other fruits. Grapes, however, should
never be planted in an orchard or near trees They do best
on trellises If these were placed among tree rows they
would interfere with cultivation The vines are also likely to
give trouble by climbing into the trees, especially if neg-
lected — even for a single year

One favorite way and a modification to get the greatest
possible assortment of fruits in a limited space, such as half
an acre or even less, is described below, but first the un-
desired kinds should be eliminated — poor quality kinds,
purely culinary varieties and staples which can be bought in
the markets and stores.

Next to omit, or at least plant sparingly, are varieties that
ripen when the normal supply of other fruit is likely to be
so abundant that there might be waste — during August and
September when grapes, blackberries, peaches, plums and
early apples and pears crowd each other for consumption
Each of these should be represented but none too bberally
because they are highly perishable

On the other hand, gaps must be avoided in the sequence
of supplies The most likely to occur is after September
when there are no really choice peaches or plums, when
raspberries and blackberries are rarities and currants and
gooseberries never seen During this period, however, some
of the most delicious varieties of apples, pears and grapes
are in season and everbearing strawberries are welcome
luxuries Very few of these are obtainable and these few at
high prices in the markets or the stores, but with only ordi-
nary care they may be had for four to eight or ten weeks hence
are well worth having for home use.

The three most popular systems of orchard lay-out are
the square, the hexagon (or equilateral triangle) and the
rectangle (Fig 67.) Because of its simplicity of setting the

304

FIVE ACRES

square is most popular for small farm orchards, though the
rectangle is a close competitor. The hexagon is used for
large commercial orchards because 15% more trees may be
planted in a given area and because, the distance between
trees being the same, cultivation may be given in three di-
rections instead of only two It is not desirable for the small
orchard

Having decided upon the varieties, the next step is the
plan of arrangement For convenience of discussion suppose
that the available area is 100' by 200' This is slightly less
than half an acre By vizuahzing the trees as if full grown
and calculating distances on this basis mistakes as to crowd-
ing may be avoided The distances given in the Appendix are
mostly adaptable to business plantations If they are ad-
hered to strictly m the small orchard they will make proper
tillage difficult or impossible and all appearance of symmetry
and convenience will be lest

The best way to avoid such objections is to adopt a unit
rligtanrp that will provide both adequate space between die
trees and permit the temporary growing of small fruits, but
not grapes, between the trees The plants should be placed
so they may be cultivated by either horse or garden tractor,
preferably (while young, at least) in two directions for the

first year or perhaps two , , „ ,

For the small orchard SCT may look like an extravagant
distance between apple and sweet cherry trees, but with
small growing trees between there will be no crowding even
when the trees are fuU grown This would not be the case
if a distance less than 40' between the large growing trees were
adopted. Even at this latter distance the fiHer trees would
either have to be removed while they were still bearing well or
they would be almost sure to interfere with and perhaps
actually injure the large kinds Though the average
merciaUife J of the peach tree is only about 10 years it rnay
be extended to double or triple that time, even m commeraal
plantings Why not give it the care that will assure this

'"Btto « orchard is to be a permanent invest «t ttMd

be placed on the best land and given

Preferably the land should be prepared at least one season

SMALL FARM FRUIT GARDENS

305

ahead of the planting by breaking up the sod, getting rid
of stumps, large stones, and by growing a well fertilized,
well tilled crop of corn, early potatoes or other profitable
vegetable on it, partly for the crop itself but mainly to get
the soil in the best possible condition for tree planting
Really the seeming loss of a year will be a gam because the
trees will thrive much better and make greater growth in
well prepared soil than in raw sod freshly turned over

Whatever crop is chosen for this preliminary work it
should be one that must be harvested not later than mid
September. Immediately following the harvest of this crop
the ground should be plowed, harrowed and sown with a
mixture of rye and winter vetch as a cover crop. If the sow-
ing must be delayed until after the middle of September
Canada field peas may be sown either alone or with rye.
Vetch when sown as late as this will not make a worth while
stand (Chapter 29.)

The easiest way to get rows straight and the trees uni-
formly spaced is as follows: 1. Establish a straight “base”
line across the longest dimension of die field at half the

306

FIVE ACRES

distance the trees are to stand apart — 12%' in the present
case This space is for the turning area for team or tractor
2. Place a stake the same distance — 12%'— from tike end
of this line to show the position of the first or corner tree

3 Use this stake as a starting point and place stakes at
25' inteivals along this base line.

4 Start again at the first stake, measure off 8' toward the
second stake and place a temporary stake there

5 Again start at the first stake, guess at making a right
angle with the first line and about 6' toward the opposite
side of the field place a temporary stake

Fig 70 Tree setting board (See text )

6. Now measure 10' from the temporary (8') stake on the
first line toward the temporary one at 6' on the (tentative)

second line. ,, . ..

7 Move this (6') stake until it is exactly 6 from the

first tree (or corner) stake and also 10' from the first tempo-
rary stake on the base line The line drawn through mis
stake from the comer stake will be at right angles to the
first (or base) line The principle here involved is that when
the sides of a triangle are in the ratio of 3 to 4 to 5 the
angle opposite S is a right angle .

8 With this angle established, extend the new line to

the opposite side of the field ,

9 For planting small fields these two lines wdl he suf-
ficient, for large ones most planters make lmes on the other
two sides (or at various places across thearea
direction) and "sight” from side to side and from end

each V interval .

''"ll'tJse two' light (surveyor's) dams or

25' long, placing the end of one at the second stake meacb

of the two base lmes and extend each wire paral

Sta S The ends mil meet where the neat state is to be

SMALL FARM FRUIT GARDENS 307

set in the second row of trees The four stakes will be at the
comers of a square.

12. Move the end of one wire to the third stake in the
base line and the end of the other wire to the last stake (the
one just placed) and extend the wires as before to place the
next stake Continue this method until all stakes are placed.
When carefully done the rows will be straight and the trees
evenly spaced. A man and two boys may work this plan
better than one or even two men

To insure getting the trees placed properly in position a
planting board is a help, almost a necessity. The most
popular style (Fig 70) is about 5' long, 5 " or 6" wide, %"
thick, with a V-shaped notch 3" wide cut at each end and
another at the middle on one side To use it place the mid-
dle notch snugly against the tree stake. Then place a tempo-
rary stake m each end notch. Next remove the tree stake
and the board and dig the hole where the tree stake stood.
Then fit the board to tihe temporary stakes in the earth, place
the tree trunk in the centre notch and fill in.

One style of planting board (Fig. 70) which obviates the
necessity of using temporary stakes consists of two pieces,
each about 30" long, hinged together, preferably with two
strap hinges to make them rigid. One piece has a notch in its
free end, the other has two 6" or 8" legs fitted snugly in it.
To use it the board is extended full length with the notch
snugly against the tree stake and the legs pressed full depth
in tiie ground The notched end is then swung backward,
the tree stake removed, the hole dug, the notched end re-
turned to open position, the tree trunk placed m the notch
and the earth spaded in.

In all tree planting it is advisable to make the holes large
enough to get both feet in so as to pack the earth firmly
about the roots Also it is best, when digging the holes, to
throw the good (top) soil in one pile and the poorer (sub-
soil) in another so that when filling the hole the good soil
may be thrown in next to the roots which will thus have the
best possible chance to make a good start The subsoil be-
ing placed on top will also reduce possible trouble with
weeds. Under no conditions place any manure or rKwruVal
fertilizer in the tree holes because these will burn the roots.

308

FIVE ACRES
*

The only safe fertilizers to use thus are the non-chemical o™ *
such as ground bone, dried blood and tanknp*

Another caution. Not until after the trees are planted do
any pruning of the tops Should this be done previously,
twigs or buds that should remain may accidentally be
broken without chance of making substitutions
During the growing season keep the land cleanly cul-
tivated for a diameter of at least S' around each tree If the
whole area is cultivated (which is the best practise) cease
tillage between July 1 and IS and sow rye and winter vetch,
but preferably after the last cultivation Clean cultivation
until midsummer will insure conditions that favor best de-
velopment and will also reduce the danger of damage by
borers which are always more destructive where weeds and
grass grow around the trunks and thus form shelters More
peach trees are killed by borers than by all other causes put
together

49

SELECTION OF TREE FRUITS

If the general fanner will become an expert orehardist, he will find
that year by year his ten acres of fruit will give him a larger profit
than forty acres of grain land, but to get this result he must be faith-
ful to his trees

Josh Williams Streeter,

In The Fat of the Land

I ncome from fruits, especially tree fruits (most of all from
the apple) is so largely dependent upon the variety or
varieties grown that it is essential to success to ponder to
mam points before placing a nursery order (Chapter ov j
Recent surveys show (hat whereas Michigan and JNew
York orchards contain nearly 250 varieties each of apples,
Washington State has less than 75 This is because in
former states orchards were planted mainly to supply
tivd.y local markets, whereas Washington growers awned o
dis tant ones, even the Atlantic Coast and Europe Ta g

SELECTION OF TREE FRUITS

309

the country over, estimates place only 25 varieties in the
prominently commercial class, of which 15 make up more
than 70% and of which more than half (37% of the total)
consists of five leaders — Delicious, Jonathan, Stayman Wine-
sap, Winesap, and McIntosh

More striking even than this: the survey brought out the
fact that though in former years many varieties of high pro-
duction and good color but of low quality were largely
planted, recent plantings indicate that such kinds — Ben
Davis, York Imperial, Gano and Arkansas, as instances —
are being omitted from nursery orders and higher quality
varieties substituted.

Before the advent of the automobile when shipments to
market were made almost exclusively by rail and water, in-
dividual commercial orchardists restricted their lists of va-
rieties to less than half a dozen — usually only three or four
— because they shipped in carlots or cargoes Now that
auto-trucks are so largely used the tendency is to plant six
to ten successionally ripening varieties so as to reduce the
rush at harvest and thus employ smaller numbers of men
over longer periods

Except in orchards where special marketing advantages
exist, summer and early autumn varieties of apples and
pears are shunned by commercial growers because of their
perishable nature. Winter varieties are far more widely
planted because they can be handled to greatest advantage,
especially for distant markets and where the grower has his
own cold storage house, as many of the larger ones have.
The result is city markets are poorly supplied with summer
and early fall apples and pears

So here is one of the most important points for the small
grower to consider when choosing varieties for the local
market, especially the roadside market. As the small farm
cannot produce winter fruit in competition with the large
growers these varieties should be the first to pass by. For
the roadside market they should also usually be omitted
because the season of such marketing generally continues
only during the growing season, if that long— April to
November — so winter fruit would have to be sold through
some other outlet °

310

FIVE ACRES

Conversely, summer and fall ripening varieties are ideal
for local and roadside markets, first because of their usuallv
ahWh UPP f 3 second because of their generally perish
My t C " n ° t ** " !b,HJai “

^ntages summer and early fall apples have

i, faH ^ nd . wu [ ter klnds are firs f that they generally
begin to bear fruit when much younger— often m less than
five years, second, early kinds usually bear mn rterate to
even large : crops every year, whereas most winter kmds have
their full and off” years, unless specially trained and
their fruit well thinned The assigned reason for this latter
characteristic is that as the fruit ripens early the trees have
opportunity after harvest to store up plant food and develop
flower buds for fruit production the following year, whereas
after winter fruit has been gathered there are only a few
days or at most weeks before winter Thus under normal
conditions and treatment summer and autumn varieties not
only begin to pay sooner than do the winter kinds but they
assure an increasing annual income until they reach full
bearing when they often yield larger profits than do wmter
kinds of the same age

# No matter whether the varieties chosen be early or late
ripening kmds, too much emphasis cannot be placed upon
high quality, especially for one’s own roadside market
or for “personal customers ” In spite of the steady enhance-
ment of quality in commercial orchards the markets are still
full of inferior fruit So when a customer discovers a reliable
source of high quality fruit not only his custom but that of
his friends is assured

Though many of our choicest quality apples have unat-
tractive color (for instance, Swaar, Pomme Grise, and Rox-
bury Russet) the public is so slow to learn and to recog-
nize them that such varieties should be planted solely for
home use and to share the surplus, if any, with a few dis-
criminating friends and patrons The general public "eats
with its eyes”, therefore “any color so long as it’s red" is
what will open the pubhc purse If pleased with the quality
there will be no difficulty in making further sales So for
profit it is wise to plant only red skinned varieties

SELECTION OF TREE FRUITS

311

Before deciding on the list of varieties to plant it is ad-
visable still further to know intimately the characteristics
of each one so as to avoid trouble or loss later on Some va-
rieties such as Tompkins King and Grimes Golden are sub-
ject to collar rot, a disease that attacks the trunks at the
surface of the ground and kills (he trees. It may be avoided
by “double working,” that is, grafting the Grimes on a va-
riety known to be resistant or immune to this disease. Some
nurseries list such trees, always however at prices above
those of ordinarily propagated trees. Alexander and Wolf
River (baking varieties) are subject to more or less decay
of the fruit while still on the trees, so they require extra
spraying Chenango Strawberry, a delicious dessert variety,
is also subject to this disease Baldwin seems specially sub-
ject to attacks of bitter rot and railroad worm, both of
which are difficult to control Canada Red shrivels badly in
storage, Hubbardston also to some extent Lady and Pomme
Grise (the former beautifully colored, the latter not), are so
small that unless one has a special market they will not pay.
Esopus Spitzenburg, though delicious, beautiful and fra-
grant, often bears too few fruits to be profitable. McIntosh
and Yellow Transparent are subject to fire blight And so
on! The peculiarities of each variety should be carefully
weighed before a decision is reached whether to discard or
to include it You cannot know too much about a variety be-
fore ordering it'

For local market, personal customers, mail and express
orders, and roadside marketing one of the most important
points to assure in an orchard planting is selection of varie-
ties that ripen successionally from earliest to latest — at least
the latest that one desires to have the season extend, not
necessarily to include winter varieties By having such a
sequence a customer pleased at the beginning of the season
will continue to buy until the close, whereas if there are
serious breaks his trade will be much more difficult to re-
establish when a new supply begins to ripen

So far as supplying home needs is concerned, every farm,
large or small, should have its quota of tree fruits, enough
trees of each species to supply, but not over-supply the
family during the entire year with all the fruit it can use

312

FIVE ACRES

v

either fresh or preserved. Calculation as to the amount
likely to be needed should be made on the basis of trees in
full bearing, even though ■while young they will not bear
enough to supply the demand for fresh fruit, to say nothing
of canning Otherwise the probability is that there would
be over-supply and waste

The varieties of each species should npen successionally
so as to avoid having a greater quantity of any one kind
that can be conveniently handled Thus, as maximums, one

Fig VI Field mice poison station made from old 1" boards Poisoned gram
is placed m %" depression beneath hood

sweet cherry tree of each of three varieties— early, mid-
season and late — when full grown should produce fruit for
even a large family Sour cherry tree, being much smaller,
two each of three varieties should be ample Five orsix
varieties of peaches, two trees each of the earhest for shang
and three or four of the later one for canmngshouWgiv
abundant fruit for eight to ten weeks used freh and as

“BvSfS are _U -T «- -g

raw* they are too watery or soft for canning and t pe

SELECTION OF TREE FRUITS

313

from August to December and for canning (in September
and October) will be all that any family will be likely to
need S umme r and early autumn apples are also pe rishab le,
therefore only one or at most two trees of a variety should
usually be planted. Later fall varieties are less perishable,
and among them are some of the best for canning, so two or
even three trees may not be too many, provided space can
be spared for them Where space is too precious winter va-
rieties may be omitted because cooking apples may be
bought in the neighborhood or the markets until strawber-
ries are ripe the following summer

One or two quince trees will usually bear enough fruit for
any family As they are smaller than any orchard trees they
should be planted separately Though apricot trees are
hardy, their blossoms are often killed by spring frosts.
They should, therefore, be planted for ornament and in the
hope that they may escape damage. Two or three trees of
different varieties — early, mid-season and late — should be
enough for a family Two or three nectarines might be added
more for curiosity than anything else

Of course, if there is any surplus from any of these trees
it should be easy to sell, provided its quality is sufficiently
good to attract buyers.

Just what, if any, tree fruits one should grow on a small
place in the hope of making them profitable is a question
to be weighed seriously before deciding As it is folly to
plant trees closer together than they should stand when full
grown (See the Appendix), the space they would occupy
may perhaps be made to pay larger returns during the s ame
period of years, but normally less after the trees reach full
bearing

Peach trees often begin to bear when three years old and
though their commercial life is only about ten years, they
may be made to continue in bearing for two or three tim<»<s
as long Sour cherry and plum trees sometimes start to bear
when four years old and unless killed by black knot or other
diseases continue for 20 or 30 years Sweet cherry may
start when four years old but continue for 40, SO or more
years Some varieties of apple, mostly early ones, begin to
bear when three or four years old, others not until 10 or

314

FIVE ACRES

even IS, though much time may be saved by proper man-
agement Often they bear well for SO to 75 years or even
longer

Before discarding the idea of growing tree fruits for profit
on the small place consider this point While the relatively
slow-maturing sweet cherry and apple trees are developing
the spaces between them may be occupied with “filler” trees
of smaller kinds which mature quickly, bear liberally, and
under ordinary conditions are shorter lived The peach is
the favorite filler in apple orchards for these reasons. How-
ever, objections are often raised concerning it Among them
are the facts, first, that the trees require spraying or dust-
ing with different (or weaker) mixtures than do apple and
thus demand unreasonable expenditure of time and atten-
tion, second, the filler trees may be so profitable that they
may be allowed to remain so long that the permanent cherry
or apple trees may be injured by crowding, especially when
they are set closer together than the recommended distances
The only way to prevent such a calamity (for so it may
become) is to delegate their destruction to some heartless
hireling and absent oneself from the murder of the in-

nocents !

Even when permanent and filler trees are planted together
it is not necessary or even advisable to let them have exclu-
sive possession of the ground while they are small Tempo-
rary, inter-tilled crops may be grown between the trees or
several years Under no temptation should such CT °P
hay, grain or any perennial vegetable like asparagus These
demand much moisture and plant food (the former espe-
cially), encourage neglect of the trees and make losses by
borers much more likely than when the ground is cultivated

d Among the best inter-tilled _ crops are_ strawberry
(cropped one year and then plowed DO ta-

cucumbers, cantaloupes, watermelons, early (n ) P
t nP c j n f ac t anv crop that is shallow rooted, does not

quire Sep sod after £

erably is gathered before tfaejrst ^mn ^ost ^ ^

/

315

SELECTION OF TREE FRUITS

man has paid all the costs of his orchard from planting to
profitable bearing age, and in some cases even made a profit
before the trees began to bear It must always be borne in
mind, however, that the permanent crop — the orchard — is
the real investment This must not be neglected for any in-
cidental profit that might be derived from any temporary
crop As the trees increase in spread the available area be-
tween them will necessarily become narrower until, eventu-
ally, they will shade the ground too much to make the grow-
ing of temporary crops feasible

Unless the orchard area is very narrow in proportion to
its length it is a good plan to have the rows of temporary
crops extend lengthwise one year and crosswise m the fol-
lowing season Such alternation of direction will break up
and aerate the soil between the trees in each direction and
thus not only better control perennial weeds but prevent the
soil from becoming unduly compacted.

The 25-year-old apple orchard soil fertility experiments
at the Pennsylvania Experiment Station support the opin-
ions of fruit growers in the conclusions chosen and con-
densed from Bulletin 294 as follows: [Italics are mine
M. G K]

1. Orchard soil fertility is more than its plant food con-
tent It involves the nature, depth, topography, previous
treatment, use of fertilizers and manures, amount and na-
ture of cultivation and covers or sods grown. Fertilizers are
only part of the problem of soil fertility

2. In this orchard, any treatment that has influenced the
trees at all has done so in the following order first, cover
crops, perhaps several years later, leaf color; shortly after,
branch growth and circumference increase; and last of all,
yield

3. The reason for this sequence of results is that the treat-
ments — whether chemical fertilizers, manure or cover crops
— have influenced yields chiefly by changing the organic
content of the soil, that is, those treatments which have re-
sulted in larger cover crops have ultimately resulted m more
jruit

4. The organic content of the soil has been a consider-
able factor in determining the amount of water in the soil.

316

FIVE ACRES

Those treatments which built up organic content have en-
abled the soil to soak up ramfall rather than to lose it by
surface run-off. A larger water supply, in turn, has produced
more cover crops

5 Good treatments have nearly offset the initial disad-
vantage of poor soil, but it is more economical to plant an
orchard on good soil, than to attempt the improvement of
a poor one

6 A short, non-legume sod rotation is an efficient means
of building up a depleted orchard soil After a sod of any
kind becomes thick, tree growth is checked and yields de-
cline Orchard sods should be turned under, or partially

broken, frequently

7 Moisture conditions are often more favorable in sod
orchards than in cultivated ones Run-off is checked by the
sod and less water is used by a sod in midsummer, after it
has been mowed, than by a heavy cover crop

8 Under a non-legume sod, the soil nitrate supply be-
comes low in late May or early June, necessitating early
applications of nitrogenous fertilizers Annual, per tree, ap-
plications of 10 pounds of nitrate of soda or its equivalent
of ammonia or other forms, have proved profitable Super-
phosphate, in light applications, has increased sod and cover

STORAGE OF FRUITS AND VEGETABLES 317

50

STORAGE OF FRUITS AND VEGETABLES

The roadside market presents an exceptional opportunity for small
capital in a day when agriculture is becoming highly specialized It
takes a lot of money to start m almost any kind of farming The
roadside marketer may begin with a few acres and plant intensive
crops, such as vegetables, berries and Sowers, which bring cash re-
turns without long waits An inexpensive stand may be made as genu-
inely attractive as an expensive structure The operator’s personality
will be his most valuable asset

Gilbert S Watts,

In Roadside Marketing

I n one house my father owned a dumb waiter between the
kitchen and the cellar saved so many steps between these
two rooms and was so convenient in other ways that I show
a still better one' Ours used only the moderately cool cellar
air for chilling and keeping food; the one illustrated * (Fig.
3) uses ice, thus securing much lower temperatures.

The refrigerator is built in the basement under the
kitchen or the pantry and the dumb waiter is so arranged
that the cage is lowered into the cooling chamber beside
the ice-box Both the cooling chamber and the ice bunker
are fitted with a door opening into the cellar, so these* cham-
bers may be accessible for cleaning, filling the ice-box, if
desired, loading and unloading the dumb waiter.

The cooling chamber may be 2' square, the cage of the
waiter 18" square, and the bunker 2' x 2' x 4'. This bunker
will hold 600 to 700 pounds of ice, thus reducing the neces-
sity for frequent filling and the rate of melting, because
of the large quantity of ice in the box
Cheaper construction than shown might be used, but the
meltage would be greater and the temperature in the cooling
chamber could not be kept so low or so uniform The size
might be reduced if the family were small
Successful storage of fruits and vegetables depends on
maintenance of favorable temperature, ventilation and hu-

* Bulletin 306, Ontario Department of Agriculture

318

FIVE ACRES

midity So far as storage is concerned vegetables are of two
classes, warm and cool The former (sweet potatoes, pump-
kins and squashes) need a temperature of 50°, so some
means of heating should be provided, cool vegetables (po-
tatoes, cabbage, carrots, beets and turnips) do best when
the temperature is between 34° and 38°

The humidity requirements of the two classes also differ,
warm vegetables must be stored m dry air, cool ones in
moist Usually, the soil of the storage door supplies enough
moisture provided it is not covered with concrete or stone
masonry, but if the door is not of earth it should be sprinkled
often

Ventilation is essential Though this is less important for
cool vegetables than for warm ones, except during the first
four to six weeks of their storage, it is essential for the warm
vegetables to prevent sweating and rotting Sweating may
also be prevented by proper heating

Fruits need temperatures equivalent to those of cool veg-
etables. Ventilation is still more essential because fruits
readily absorb odors They should never be stored near
strong smelling vegetables Even when stored alone good
ventilation and clean conditions are essential to the retention

of high quality

Where permanent facilities are not available, mound stor-
age is. the least costly, simplest method of storing cool vege-
tables A well drained place 4' to 6' in diameter is leveled off
and two trenches 6" deep dug at right angles across it for
ventilation and drainage These are covered with stiff, gal
vanized hardware cloth (W' mesh wire netting) and ro
their intersection a woven wire flue erected to serve as a
chimney The earth floor is next covered wiA fallen learn,
straw or other loose material 4" to 6 deep and
conically piled around the chimney Thus the whole mteno

will be well ventilated .... A .r, a"
When the pile is about 30" high it
of the same kind of litter and then with 6 to 10 of soff^ex

VA S

££££ S 3£ T° ZSZA . **

STORAGE OF FRUITS AND VEGETABLES 319

is dug around and away from the mound to a lower level.
(Fig. 72.) Unless this precaution is taken the vegetables
are almost sure to decay.

Several small mounds of this size are better than one large

Fig 72 Types of outdoor fruit and vegetable storage

one because it is advisable to remove the entire contents of
a mound than to try to dose a large one after it has been
opened during winter. Rarely can such a mound be made
water-tight after once being opened; moreover, vegetables
and fruits are more likely to spoil in a large mound. For

320

FIVE ACRES

home use it is advisable to have assorted vegetables in each
small mound, for sale only one kind Beets, carrots, turnips,
potatoes, parsnips and salsify keep well in such storages
Apples will keep but after long storage usually have an earthy
flavor when eaten raw

Cabbage may be stored in long piles or in mounds The

latter are formed by banking earth over the heads turned
upside down and with their stems removed to prevent rot
After the burying is complete a trench should be dug on each
side of the finished pile for drainage
Apples and cool vegetables may be stored in barrels sunk
in the ground, preferably so placed after packing and when
cold, as in early morning A pit is dug either in a well drained
level place or on a slope, lined with gravel or dnders for
drainage and, after being put in place, lined with more
gravel. The head of the barrel is covered with a burlap sack
full of leaves and weighted down with boards and stones
My own storage room is built in the basement of my house
beneath a bay window Though it has given satisfaction
for about ten years the style illustrated in Figs 73, 74 offers
some improvements Failing a bay window such as mine a
storage room may he built in a corner so as to take advan ge
of two walls already built Preferably two windows should be
available, though one may be made to serve The partition
walls should be built of two layers of sheathing with mm-
mg paper between, nailed to each side of the studding
41 space between filled with insulating material such as

STORAGE OF FRUITS AND VEGETABLES 321

planer shavings or sawdust The door should be double
thickness with building paper between
Never is it advisable to have anything of wood per-
manently fixed to the fioor; the dampness will rot it, and
the extra surfaces and comers will form lodging places for
molds, plant disease germs and dirt A dear fioor favors
cleanliness and convenience in arranging storage receptades.
Portable slat fioors in sections may be used to support bar-
rds, boxes and crates They also favor ventilation beneath
them and fadlitate removal for deaning. Wall shelves are
good for carrying small boxes, crates, and canned goods. My
own are of 12"-wide boards. For ventilation’s sake I think
cypress slats 1" thick and separated by 1" or 2" spaces
might be better, especially if painted with linseed oil and
dried before putting them in place. It would be advisable to
have the uprights supported by brackets and from the ceiling
rather than from the fioor as rot at the bottom could thus
be avoided and the floor would be freer of obstructions.

T0V|2T air inlet

>10 iii

Fig 75 Water-tight joint of cellar Boor

lar He last is usually most costly because it demands most
excavation and largest amount of wall to build As a barn
is on every farm, is conveniently located and usually has a
masonry foundation the following description by Donald
Comin has been condensed from The Bimonthly Bulletin
of the Ohio Experiment Station (Number 153)

All perishable produce storages require insulation of the
walls and ceiling to prevent rapid temperature changes

STORAGE OF FRUITS AND VEGETABLES 323

Fortunately the earth provides simple means of meeting the
problem when low temperatures are not necessary. It is a
poor insulation against the flow of heat, but because of its
heat capacity it modifies the temperature of the surrounding
air, tending to maintain storage temperatures close to that
of the earth itself — 40° to 55° F.

In summer and early fall the earth temperature is lower
than that of the air, so it absorbs heat and thus cools the
storage room In late fall and winter it is warmer than the
outside air so releases heat and thus raises the temperature

Fig 76 Ground plan of fruit and vegetable storage.

of the room Thus the influence of the earth on the incoming
air replaces insulation necessary in above-ground storages
The natural water movement in the soil maintains desir-
able humidity in such storages Incidentally, evaporation also
tends to cool the stored produce
Under-ground storage affords ideal conditions for those
perishables that require considerable ventilation Incoming
cold air removes the heat from stored produce at a rate de-
pendent upon the volume passing through as well as the
difference in temperature of the air and the produce At the
same time the earth floor and the walk raise or lower the
temperature of the ventilating air all day with hardly any
appreciable effect upon the soil temperature
The result of these forces k to lower the temperature of
the stored product rather rapidly while the ventilators are
open, provided the outer temperature k low enough. When
the ventilators are closed, the temperature inside gradually
returns to that of the ground, so frost injury may be pre-
vented. The great capacity of the earth to modify incoming

324

FIVE ACRES

air temperatures allows for maximum ventilation with mini-
mum danger from too rapid falls of temperature in the stor-
age

The limitations of this type of storage should not be
under-estimated During seasons when low air temperatures

arrive early, it is easily possible to lower and maintain the
temperature of the produce stored bdow ground agamst
the counteracting higher temperature of the earth, but dif-
ficulties arise in seasons of persistent high temperate
is an advantage so to place the structure as to utilize pre-
vailing winds as aids to ventilation
The storage illustrated in Figs 7 5-78 was built at ^th
Experiment Station for use in storage studies of vegetable
Next to the barn a 12" x 54" section of the «PPWjdt ' JJ
removed by team and scraper A minimum of hand latior
JS nwessmy to straighten the earth waH

teriSg fte forms to hold the concrete ^ Rough, used

lumber was utilized to build the £ n

STORAGE OF FRUITS AND VEGETABLES 325

jral forms After an over-night set of the concrete poured
for the walls the forms were removed and used to support
the roof slab. Thus the amount of form material was greatly
reduced

The walls and footings were poured of a lean mixture
(cement 1 part; bank-run gravel, 6 ) The roof slab was made
of a one to three mixture Some used brick and stones were
thrown in with the concrete A thin layer of heated road tar
was brushed on the finished roof slab as waterproof The
walls and footings required no reinforcement, but the roof
slab was necessarily reinforced with construction steel since
truck loads of 5 tons or more pass over the barn approach
Accepted plans of reinforcement, as supplied by construction
steel manufacturers were followed

326

FIVE ACRES

factory and as economical as an equal protection by other

means

Seven inlet and three outlet ducts were installed as sup-
plemental and night ventilators “Seconds” of 18" vitrified
sewer tile were used for this purpose. Their location and
number may be used to suit individual conditions The num-
ber used in this storage may be excessive, though they will
insure adequate ventilation under any condition and will
prevent dead air pockets forming in the corners and else-
where Hie air-mtake area equals one square foot for each
340 cubic feet of storage capacity; the out-takes, one to 794
cubic feet By installing greater numbers of out-takes and
lengths or an exhaust fan or other contrivance to aid air
movement, the ratio of vent size to storage capacity could
have been materially raised

A 1/20 horsepower, airplane-propeller type, exhaust fan
with 105-watt electrical m-put was installed m this storage
At prevailing current costs this fan will effect 25 complete
changes of air an hour at a cost of Jess than If 1 fin other
localities such costs would rarely be more than double j

The earth floor is expected to maintain a relative hu-
midity satisfactory for the storage of any cool vegetable or
fruit A line of 4" tile was laid just below the ground level
msirfn the storage at its periphery, connected with dram open-
ings at each door and covered with cinders.

The completed storage has a minimum 2' of earth fill,
covered with sod, on the roof and ends This will prevent
the entrance of frost through the roof slab and the sod will
present a pleasing appearance to the exterior as well as favor
low temperature beneath

The tile vents at the surface of the ground have strong
wooden and metal covers which are uninjured by bon* J.
truck Coarse mesh screens in all openings prever d rofcntj
and trash from entering while the storage is Wg «««»
at night Home made padded plugs fit into the tile op ™ J.
from the inside and prevent air leakage during subm

WC This storage should especially appeal to the farmer ’ wj* »
has small quantities of perishable crops and is rnj
in spending much for storage Its material cost is low and it

328

FIVE ACRES

picked up within a few minutes or immediately covered with
vines, weeds or sacks, raised above the ground surface and
promptly taken to storage

Onions must be thoroughly npe when harvested, always in
dry weather, cured by drying a few hours in the field then
under cover and in a breeze until thoroughly dry before be-
ing permanently stored Storage must be dry and cold— just
above 32° F., but the bulbs will stand a little freezing and
thawing Well cured onions are firm and not easily dented at
the stem end by the thumb when held in the hand They
should show no sprouts or new roots They are best for
storage when topped at about 1%"

Root crops (beets, carrots, turnips, rutabagas, winter
radish and kohlrabi — only the best — should be stored in
pits, cellars or caves, tightly covered boxes, crocks or in
sand They must be kept covered and cold to prevent shrivel-

Parsnips, salsify, parsley, and horseradish may be left
in the ground all winter whore they grew To prevent exces-
sive alternate freezing and thawing, which destroys them,
they should be covered lightly during the period of light fall
frosts and thaws with straw, cornstalks or other material,
which should be removed when severe weather arrives so
they may freeze solid and then re-covered to keep them thus
until spring when they may be dug All except parsley may
be stored in cellars, but to be kept cnsp they should be kept

frozen » .»

The pit method is better than the storage room for thee
root crops. For storage in pits they should be dug after free-
ing weather begins, preferably late stored 11 .piles, covered
to prevent alternate freezing and thawmg and not plaoedin
the pits until the ground has frozen and they are also slowly
frozen solid The plan is to keep them continuously froze
or to have the least possible alternations of freezing and
thawmg The boxes and barrels used to store ^em should
b? . covered with burlap or carpet, then a moiae-prorf »ver
and finall y fallen leaves, straw or other light msuiauon
When removed from the pits the vegetables may e
slowly in cold water over night, after which they may be kep
m ordinary storage for several weeks

STORAGE OF FRUITS AND VEGETABLES 329

Squash, pumpkins and sweet potatoes must be gathered
before even the slightest frost touches them, thoroughly
ripened and cured before being stored; also free from bruises,
else they will rot They may be kept in crates or on shelves
in a thoroughly dry place at 50° to 55°. When first put in
they must be given abundant air at 80® to 90° F. for about
two weeks to dry the skins. As a substitute for this they may
be laid on deep straw in cold frames or on a dry knoll and
covered during duiiy nights with sailcloth or other heavy
fabric for about three weeks Sweet potatoes are best stored
in baskets or crates Those that tend to shrivel at the stem
ends should be stored with paper coverings or in dosed bates.

Celery', head lettuce, leeks and endive may be rooted in
earth in a cellar, watered occasionally and kept until Christ-
mas or later. Root crops, cauliflower and Brussels sprouts
may also be stored similarly.

Tomatoes may be kept until Thanksgiving Day if stored
before frost touches them Those that have not reached the
glistening stage should not be stored as they will not ripen.
They are good for pickle making In storage the others may-
be placed on straw in cold frames and covered in cold weather
or placed on shdves in storage at temperatures of about 55 c .

Apples and pears store like potatoes except that 3*® to 36®
F. is the best temperature range. Apples are more easily-
damaged by bruising than are potatoes Only sound fruit
of late varieties free from skin breaks, scab and worm holes
are safe to store. They should be picked while hard ripe,
handled carefully, in padded baskets or fruit-picking bags
and never dropped into containers. After picking they should
be sorted for quality and only sound fruit saved for storing,
packed in clean boxes, baskets or crates, stacked in storage,
but never so full as to cause bruising.

Most varieties scald in storage unless preventive measures
arc taken. This disease kills the fruit skin which turn; brown
and later starts rot. It is best prevented by packing the fruit
in shredded oil paper scattered through the pickace or by-
wrapping each app'c in oiled paper. One pound of paper per
bushel is enoiiah Wrapping also prevents sp-cading of rot.

As the red epp’e surfaces do no' develop scald, it is im-
portant to allow the fruit to remain on the trees until well

330

FIVE ACRES

colored before picking Most red varieties should be at least
75 % red before picked

Apples ripen much faster off than on the trees, hence
prompt cooling and storing is important After picking they
should never be left m the sun, but immediately placed in
the shade until they can be sorted and stored.

Early winter varieties will generally keep until mid De-
1 cember, late ones until February or March Usually fall
varieties cannot be stored later than mid November

51

ESSENTIALS OF SPRAYING AND DUSTING

Knowledge of the habits of the pests of the farm, orchard and
garden is if one is to proceed intelligently toward their con-

trol Until the organism doing the damage is somewhat under-
stood, attempts at control are only guesswork
A Fxeeman Mason,

In Spraying, Dustmg mi Punugatmg of Plants

H undeeds, if not thousands, of amateur gardeners and
even many professionals are annually disappointed
because their spraying or dustmg produces either no notice-
able results or perhaps does actual damage to their plants
Despite the fact that tens of thousands of other gardeners
obtain satisfactory results they look upon the practise as
waste of money, time, work and materials and l because i of
such experiences often belittle the practise, whereas y
should condemn themselves because they either used wrong
materials, or applied right ones in wrong ways, for wrong
purposes, or at wrong times For instance, - j

an insecticide to kill a plant disease, or to employ a fungicide

t0 SC survey indicates the funcW^xtent^id
limitations of spraying and its toy let | s

However, before we discuss that phase of the sub]

Swew precautions that may be taken to increase the ™
Se of& and increase the efficacy of dustmg and spray-

ESSENTIALS OF SPRAYING AND DUSTING 331

ing and also reduce the time, money, work and materials
necessary to use.

Cl eanlin ess of orchard, garden, vineyard and berry patch
is one of the greatest preventives of plant diseases and insect
at ta cks It should characterize every month of the growing
season — and more too. By rights it should start before the
garden is made and continue after the season closes The
more debns left from one month to the next and especially
from one season to the next the more likely is the place to
be infested by bugs and blights. This is because such ma-
terial not only is of no use or beauty, not only a consumer
of plant food and water but it is shelter, breeding and feed-
ing material for insects, particularly those that naturally
infest the specific kinds of plants of which it is composed.
The sooner it is destroyed the better.

It also enables the plant diseases that attack such plants
to pass the winter upon or in it in a so-called “resting stage ”

During the growing season plants of too poor development
to be of use for food — the runts — seem often to be preferred
by insects to better developed plants and thus form sources
of infestation as long as they remain Similarly, plants poorly
fed, inadequately cultivated and those allowed to grow too
thickly become more or less emaciated and therefore highly
susceptible to the attacks of both bugs and blights, particu-
larly when weeds are abundant and water and plant food
thereby reduced

In view of all this it need scarcely be pointed out that
the runt plants, debris and the remains of those that have
passed their utility be promptly removed together with thin-
nings and weeds They may be either burned or placed on
the compost pile Either method will destroy the insects and
plant diseases upon them or deprive these pests of food on
which to' thrive and propagate. The removal will also pre-
vent the loss of plant food and moisture these plants would
take from the soil, thus benefiting the plants that remain.

During the growing season in the vegetable garden such
removal should be followed by the sowing or the planting
of a succession crop (Chapter 32) or of a green manure
(Chapter 29) This latter will not only make the subsequ entl y
grown plants of larger size and enhanced quality but more re

332

FIVE ACRES

sistant to blight and bug attack Correct tillage and oveihead
irrigation (Chapter 19) when rain falls will also greatly aid in
these directions

One other highly important thing that also greatly in-
fluences plant health is sunshine Plants well sunned are far
sturdier than those poorly lighted Because of this they re-
sist disease better and are less harmed by bugs than are
weaker ones Hence one excellent reason for thinning the
plants in vegetable gardens and planting berry plants and
trees at distances which enable the specimens to develop
to normal size without being crowded by their neighbors

But preventives and precautions, though excellent, are not
sufficient to preclude the attacks of either insects or plant
diseases It is necessary to be prepared with the right ma-
terials and means of application with which to fight when
attacks are made, and also to know when, where, and how
to apply each kind. Luckily only a few mexpensiye materials
are necessary and also fortunately it is easy to identify the
enemies to be fought— at least SO far as control is concerned
Before we discuss either materials or methods of applica-
tion, however, let us understand that efficiency is dependent
more upon their employment as preventives than as remedies
to correct or control the trouble after it has gotten a start
Vigilance to recognize the first symptoms of attack is the
watchword

During the half century that intelligent control of plant
diseases and destructive insects has been developing, hun-
dreds of investigators and operators have contributed tne
results of their investigations, discoveries and observations
and published their findings for the benefit of the general
public Some have discovered important "weak spots in tne
“life histones” of insects and diseases, others have tested
materials to determine the best and safest to use and the
proper times to apply them, still others have • wort«i
sim plify apparatus and methods of application Among

more recent developments one of the . mos J I K'^ C '<< 0 b ne
cause of its effectiveness, is what has been dubbed the

^Tt^is'noUntended that this term shall mean that any one
material or miatom wffl prevent the et-

ESSENTIALS OF SPRAYING AND DUSTING 333

tack of all kinds of plant diseases, chewing and sucking in-
sects for a whole season’ That’s too large an order! It is out
of the question to expect any single spray or dust applied,
let us say, in early spring to prevent the attacks of insects
or plant diseases that do not make their appearance until
perhaps late spring or summer. No single spray can ac-
complish such a feat! The life histories of plant pests differ
too widely to expect that Yet investigators have been work-
ing to develop spray combinations that will take care of
groups of destructive pests, including both sucking and chew-
ing insects and plant diseases that begin and carry on their
active destruction at about the same time. For instance, a
group that attacks apple trees in early spring includes tent
caterpillar, plant lice, bud moth and case-bearer larvae, San
Jose and oyster-shell scales and various plant diseases that
affect the foliage and get a start while the dormant buds are
swelling or shortly before the leaves appear.

Though formerly economic entomologists spoke and wrote
as if this or that insect must be fought thus and so as an
individual species; and though the plant pathologists did
the same thing concerning the control of plant diseases it is
only recently that they began to cooperate and to test the
efficacy of combination sprays to control these various groups
of pests Not only have they proved that one specific com-
bination will take care of them but that when properly done
and at the right time only one spraying should be necessary.

Formerly the recommendation was to spray first with a
“winter strength” or “dormant strength" solution while the
buds are still dormant but on mild winter days; second, with
a different or more dilute solution when the leaves are be-
ginning to unfold. Today they strike an average, so to speak,
between these two periods and recommend, first, one spray-
ing at just the time when the dormant buds are begi nning to
burst and, second, instead of one of the more drastic old
time sprays of former years they use one of the newer, milder,
yet equally effective spray materials used in accordance with
the instructions of the manufacturers.

This recommendation is the result of years of infinite pa-
tience on the part of the scientists, more especially of the
economic entomologists These men and women have counted

334

FIVE ACRES

literally millions of microscopically small insect eggs after
having been treated with Assorted solutions a nd dusts and
at various specified times in order to determine the percentage
of those m which the insects have or have not been inliM
They have also examined millions of buds sprayed at various
periods of development from fully dormant to fully open
and with various solutions to discover how much or how
little injury was done to them Their figures have been tab-
ulated, published in bulletins of various experiment stations
and their conclusions epitomized in only a few qpntpnrp*
which are still further condensed as follows

1 As spring approaches the shells of various insect eggs—
especially of those kinds which naturally hatch m early spring
— gradually become porous in order to enable the developing
insects to breathe

2 Because of tins porosity the right kind of spray—
a caustic or a miscible oil — will penetrate the shells and kill
far more insects than could be killed earlier in the winter
while the shells are relatively too resistant for such penetra-
tion

3. The buds swell and the insects emerge from the eggs
at about the same tune and the insects crawl to, hide and
protect themselves among the bud scales and unopened
leaves, upon which latter they begin to feed

4 The young leaves and the other incipient growths are
so tender when they first begin to develop that old style sprays
often destroy them unless diluted perhaps too much to be
effective

5 The new spray materials, after countless tests, have
not only proved themselves to be highly efficient but harm-
less to fiie new growths of plants

6 Sprays of specified kinds may be harmlessly and v et
ficiently combined in order to combat both diseases and ( in-
sects so that only one application, when done at the proper
time, need be made, thus reducing the amount of work, time
and therefore cost and yet not impair the efficiency of any

one of the ingredients

7 Conversely, sprays of other specified kinds (as was pre-
viously known at least in part) must not be combined be-
cause this would make the mixture less effective or, perhaps,

ESSENTIALS OF SPRAYING AND DUSTING 335

actually injurious to the foliage, especially while young
and succulent

8. “Stickers” or “spreaders” added to sprays of certain
lands accomplish two main purposes; namely, they increase
the adhesiveness and lengthen the period from days to weeks
during which the spray will cling to the plants and thus
continue effective regardless of even heavy rams.

In spite of such knowledge it is easy to waste time and
money by using ineffective materials, by the incorrect use
of materials, or by using these latter too early or too late In
order to avoid such mistakes and losses it is necessary to
know the answers to the following questions; to answer
than, however, one doesn’t need scientific training but merely
one’s own eyes. So far as combating the various pests is con-
cerned the following questions cover the practical points.

1 Is the trouble caused by bacteria? How are bacterial
attacks recognized?

If the surface of the leaves is unbroken, smooth, without
spots, holes or swellings or mildew-like growths, if the mal-
ady seems to be wholly inside the tissues which are more or
less discolored (brown, as in fire-blight in pear, apple and
quince) or wilted (as in cucumber, watermelon and canta-
loupe) the malady is probably bacterial or physiological In
all such cases spraying is useless because the diseases are in-
ternal However, in some cases, notably those of fire-blight,
trees and bushes may be saved provided the affected parts
are cut off and burned. In order to do this properly it is im-
perative to make the cuts several inches below the lowest
noticeably affected parts and also lower than any discolora-
tion of the tissues that are to be seen between the bark and
the young wood. Furthermore, it is essential that every cut
beimmediately disinfected as explained in Chapter 36

2 'Is the trouble caused by a fungus?

When the surface of the leaf, especially the under side, or
tiie other young growths have a more or less powdery, downy
or "mildewy” appearance the cause is a fungous disease As
the feeding parts of these parasitic plants are wholly beneath
the surface they cannot be reached by any kind of spray or
dust Therefore nothing can be done to save affected parts;
but much may be done to prevent the spread of the disease

336

FIVE ACRES

to other parts of the same plants and to other plants Spray
mg or dusting with fungicides will destroy the spores for
minute, seed-like bodies) upon which the spread of the dis-
ease depends Similarly, by having the fungicide present on
the foliage before these spores alight the entrance of the dis-
ease into the plant may be prevented This is the most im-
portant point to remember and to
act upon so far as fungous Hwqgfs
are concerned (Figs 79 , 81 )

3 Do the leaves and other green
parts have irregular notches or holes
that look as if bitten in them?

If so the trouble is caused by
chewing insects — caterpillars, bee-
tles, grasshoppers or “slugs” (as
the lame of various insects are
called, though true slugs and snails,
which are not insects, do similar
damage) As a group the chewers
are the easiest of the four classes of
plant pests to control. After their
presence is discovered all that is
necessary is to spray or dust the
foliage and other green parts with a
“stomach poison” such as arsenate
of lead, Paris green or hellebore
so the insects wDl get it when they
begin to feed

4. Are the leaves more or less
contorted, concave above and convex below, crumpled, the
under sides thickly populated by tiny, usually green or black
insects or are the tips of the growing shoots similarly covered
with such insects — plant lice or aphis?

5 Are similar, but larger insects— “true bugs”~found
mostly beneath the surface of the foliage (usually, however,
not so thickly congregated) but the leaves without holes or
notches bitten in them?

6 Are the woody twigs covered by minute, more or less
round or elliptical objects that resemble tiny shells scale-
lice or scale-insects?

fie 79 Air pressure sprayel
Galvanized iron tank Brass
is far better because resistant
to spray chemicals

ESSENTIALS OF SPRAYING AND DUSTING 337

These three last classes (4, S and 6) cannot be killed or
controlled by stomach poisons because they do not bite off,
diew or swallow pieces of plant tissue but merely suck the
juices of the plants. The only ways they may be checked or
destroyed are by spraying or dusting with caustics, miscible

Kg 80 Single action barrel sprayer, suitable for 100-
tree or smaller fruit garden Note agitator, pump, cylin-
^ der and air chamber

oils or dusts that actually strike them or by a gas thgf poisons
them through their breathing apparatus.

Once having noticed the way in which a plant pest works
it is easy to choose the right material with which to fi gh t it.
Commercial plant growers are, however, not content merely
to keep on the alert all the time to discover the first ai gnc
of attack; they take action beforehand Experience has
taught them to know when to expect such visitations So the

338

FIVE ACRES

amateur or the beginner will do well to follow suit as soon
as his experience suggests the wisdom of such action
Many commercial growers make or mix at least some of
their materials because they use large quantities and the
and cost elements are essential for them to consider
Others think it safer to buy standard brands in sufficient
supply to meet their probable needs As a rule amateurs

Fig 81 Sprays that may (solid lines) and must not
(dotted lines) be mixed

should not adopt the former plan because they use so little
that the cost and time elements are excessive m comparison
Furthermore, since mixing demands a knowledge .of chem-
istry and a tedraic that must be acquired experimentally they
had far better buy the ready mixed brands either direct from
the makers or at garden, department and other/stores -from
coast to coast For the same reasons they should not' mix
spray materials of any kind without knowing exactly which
chemicals each one contains because certain, kinds when
mixed become coagulated or. ineffective or, even do damage
to the foliage when combined The accompanying chart shows

ESSENTIALS OF SPRAYING AND DUSTING 339

at a glance what kinds can and what ones can not be com-
bined with safety. (Fig 80.)

For instance, never mix a miscible oil with anything that
contains sulphur — lime-sulphur wash (“lime sulphate” of
the chart), Bordeaux mixture, or any arsenate such as that
of calcium, lead or copper (Pans green). Instances of safe
mixtures are lime-sulphur and nicotine sulphate, and either
or both of these with lead arsenate Each of these latter com-
binations may be used as a “one spray control” just when

the buds of trees and bushes are beginning to swell. Each
combination will control a vaned assortment of insects and
plant diseases The nicotine kills plant lice, the arsenate Mils
the chewing insects and the Bordeaux (or the lime-sulphur
wash) destroys the spores of plant diseases and prevents the
spread of these maladies if they have already made a start.

As most amateurs and others who need only small quanti-
ties of insecticides and fungicides will use proprietary prep-
arations it is always safe to follow the directions which manu-
facturers supply with their products and to avoid mixing any
one with any other except as indicated by the chart for fear
of injuring each and perhaps also the plants upon which
sprayed or dusted

When nec&sary to spray against the wind the “cross-fire”
method shown in 'Fig 82 will do a good job The large circle

340

FIVE ACRES

represents the tree-spread; the small one, the trunk On ap-
proaching the tree the spray is directed from A and B across
the wind as shown by the broken arrows If the tree is large
the operator steps beneath the outer branches to 1 and 2
to spray toward the opposite side. If the tree stands alone
he steps to D, £, F, 3 and 4, if in a row, he moves to the
next tree and so on to the end Here be turns back on the
opposite side and sprays the D, E, F, 3 and 4 side of each
tree By this method the small area at C is the only part of
the tree that need be sprayed with the wind
In working this method the operator must spray, 1, slightly
into the wind, 2, clear to the opposite side of the tree, and
3, from below upward so as to reach the undersides of the
leaves as much as possible, for here most fungous infections
occur. Here also poisons applied to destroy chewing insects
are protected against rain One spraying thus carefully done
is worth more Sian many done poorly

APPENDICES

SEEP S recommended for the long-row farm garden

(120 by 200 feet Rows 3 feet apart except where noted, Fig 8 )

No of
row

Part of
row

Vegetable

Amount

First planting —

Rowl

%

Asparagus, Mary Washington 1

50 roots

a

Rhubarb, Victoria or Lmnceus

20 roots

#

Onions, Egyptian perennial

lib sets

Rs 2-5

AS

Early Ohio potatoes (use dean northern-

grown seed)

lbu

Row 6

AS

Onions, Southport Yellow Globe

loz

(Marked with Scarlet Globe radish a) .

lOZ.

Row 7

%

Onions, yellow (sets)

3 lbs

%

Spinach, King o] Denmark .............

loz

Row 8

Ms

Leaf lettuce, Black Seeded Simpson (seed

Xoz

for 2 plantings)

%oz

%

Turnips, Purple Top Strap Leaf .

Vt

Kohlrabi, Early White Vienna (seed for 2

plantings)

1 loz.

Row 9

Peas, Surprise

lib

%

Peas, Daisy

lib.

Row 10

AS

Peas, Little Marvel

2 lbs

Second planting —

Row 11

%

Cabbage, Golden Acre

36 plants

%

Cabbage, Manon Market

36 plants

%

Head lettuce, May Ktng

60 plants

Row 12

%

Cabbage, ^ Wisconsin All Season (seed for

3 plantings) » « • •»•••••••••«••••»

%oz.

/

Row 13

%

Spinach, New Zealand

loz

%

Beets, Early Wonder or Crosby’s Egyptian

loz

l

%

Carrots, Cliantenoy (seed for 3 plantings)

loz

Mi

Parsley, Champion Moss Curled .

(Row 13 marked with Scarlet Globe rad-

lpkt

*

l

X

r

^lshj see Row 6)

1 When the perennials are planted m a separate area, omit Row 1 The
onions and rhubarb are easily transplanted, but it will be necessary to secure
a new supply of asparagus roots if a new location is desired, as the old roots
are undesirable for transplanting

5 The term, “marked with” means that the radish seed is sown thinly with
the other seed in the same row (Chapter 32 )

■ 343

344

APPENDICES

No of
row

Part of
row

Vegetable

Amount

Row 14

%

Parsnips, Improved Guernsey

loz

(Marked with While lade radish)

lot

%

Swiss chard, LucuOus

loz

Third planting—

Rs IS-18

m

Sweet com, Mammoth Whte Cory *

Sweet com, Roiehng Mob

Sweet com, Narrow Gram Bvtrgrten

%lb

Mlb
% lb

Row 19

i

ah

String beaus, Strmgless Green-Pod (seed
tor 2 plantings)

2 lbs

Fourth planting—

Row 20

AS

String beans, Stnngltss Green-Pod •

Row 21

Vs

a

Carrots, Chanttnay ••

(Marked with Scarlet Globe radish) .
Beets, Detroit Dark Red (seed for 2
plantings) •

Row 22

An

Cabbage, Wuconsm AB Season (seed) •

Row 23

i

Pepper, Ruby Kmg • •

Lana beans, Bendersotrs Bush

T.Ttna beans, Dreer’s Bush or Pole

Row 24

AH

Tomato, Marglobe (4' from Row 23)

Row 25

l

Row 26

t

Squash, Gmt Summer Straightneck
Cucumbeis, Chicago PichUng (6 from
Row 2S)

Row 27

ab

Watermelon, Xhddey Sweets (9' fro®
Row 25)

Row 28

AH

Squash, Delicious (wmter) ft from Row
27) ' f " '

Row M

An

Sweet potatoes, Nancy jdl or Y'Uew
Jersey (9* from Row 28)

SeeR 19

SeeR 13
SeeR 6

2 oz

SeeR K

30 plants
ttlb

50 plants

16 plants
lot

%oi

lot v

2 OX
Jot

appendices

345

DISTANCES FOR FRUIT PLANTS

Almond

Apple, dwarf, on Doucm stock
« “ on Paradise stock

“ standard, erect growing (e g , Wagoner)

“ “ majority of varieties

» « spreading (e g, R I Greenmg)

Apncot
Blackberry
Cherry, Duke
“ sour

“ sweet
Cranberry
Currant, in rows
11 in rberk*

Fig

Filbert and hazelnut
Gooseberry, in rows
“ in checks

Grape, small growing (e g, Delaware)

“ moderate growing (c g , Concord)

“ rank growing (e g, Agawam)
Grapefruit
T^nm
Loquat
Mulberry
Nectarine

Orange, dwarf varittMS
“ ordinary “

“ St Michael

Peach

Pear, dwarf
“ standard
Pecan

Persimmon, Japanese
“ American
Plum
Quince

Raspberry, black, in rows
" “ In checks

, “ purple, m rows

* “ " m checks

i " red and yellow, m rows

Strawberries
Walnut, Black
1 '* English or PerSatfv

20 '
15 - 2 S’
UM2’
30 T- 3 S*
3 SUV
40 ’— SO”
20 ”

4 '* 6 ’ to 6 'xS'

vxr to 2'zr

4'xsr

S'xS*

Vxt

S’xF

3 ’xV

S'xS’

4 'x«'

S'xS’

3 'xy

2 S'- 30 '

l 5 '~ 20 ’

30 ’— 40 ’

20 '- 2 S'

io'-ir

8 - 10 ’
ior-12'
12 - 15 ’
2 S’- 30 r
2 S'- 30 '
IS'-ZS'
2 S'- 3 S'
20 *
lO'-lS'
25 - 30 '
20 '- 25 '
20 '
lO’-lS’
2 S'- 30 '
40 ’-S 0 ’
20 '- 25 '

2 r- 00 ’
20 ’
lO'-lS'

See Chapter 48
40 '-S 0 '
30 '- 40 ’

CHOICE VARIETIES OF FRUITS

The following varieties have been chosen because of their hieh
quality and therefore suitability to amateur, home gardens

346

APPENDICES

Apples Benom, Blenheim, Chenango, Cortland, Delicious,
Early Harvest, Early Mackintosh, Esopus Spitzenberg, Fall
Pippin, Fomeuse, Golden Delicious, Golden Russet, Gravenstem,
Grimes Golden, Hubbardston, Jonathan, Lowland Raspberry,
McIntosh, Northern Spy, Peck Pleasant, Porter, Primate, Rambo,
Roxbury Russet, St Lawrence, Shiawassee, Williams, Wraesap
Apricot Alexander, Alexis, Blenheim, Budd, Early Golden,
Hams, Montgamct, Moorpark, Peach, Royal, St Ambroise
Cherry, sour' Dyehouse, Early Richmond, English Morello,
Large Montmorency, Ostheim, Wragg
Cherry, sweet Bing, Black Tartarian, Burbank, Napoleon,
Lambert, Governor Wood, Schmidt, Windsor, Yellow Spanish
Cherry, duke Late Duke, Louis Philippe, Magmfique, May
Duke, Olivet, Royal Duke, Reine Hortense
Crab' Excelsior, General Grant, Hyslop, Martha, Transcendent,

Whitney _ , _

Nectarine Boston, Downton, Early Newington, Early Rivers,
Early Violet, Elruge, Hardwicke, Humboldt, Hunter, Newton,

Pitmaston Orange, Stan wick, Victoria , ,

Peach Belle, Carman, Chairs, Champion, Early Crawford,
Fitzgerald, Foster, Frances, Greensboro, Hi ley, Late Crawford,
Moms White, Niagara, Oldmixon Ctoa Oldrmxon Fte^ Ray,
Rochester, Salwey, Smock, Stump, Waddell, Yellow St John
Pear. The following varieties are best when grafted on pear
stocks Bartlett, Belle Lucrative, Onondaga, Sechel
Pear The followmg do equally well as standard and dwarf
trees Anjou, Beurre Superfine, Clapp, '

Josephine de Mahnes, Osband, Pound, Tywn, White
J Pear The followmg usually fail as ^arfs unte double wkd
(that is with quince roots, pear trunk

grafted on the pear trunk) Beurre Bose, Mane Louise, Sheldon,

Stoddard, Surprise, Terry, W^ayland, Weav Ga( , e jtaium

Plum, European Bavay, Golden Drop, Imperial t^e, ^
Prune, Jefferson, Middleburg, Mirabelle, Pear], Peters,
Claude, Shropshire, Tragedy, Washington, Yellow Egg.

/ t

dwarf pears , 1

APPENDICES 347

Louise Bonne de Jersey, Vicar of Winkfield. (See lists in Ap-
pendix 16 )

The following varieties are offered by the leading nurseryman
who specializes in dwarf fruit trees. Anjou, Bar-Seckel, Cayuga,
Clapp, Comice, Dana Hovey, Dr. Reeder, Duchess d’Angouleme,
Flemish Beauty, Louise Bonne de Jersey, Seckel, Souvenir, Ver-
mont Beauty, Wilder, Worden-Seckel and several others of less
conspicuous merit

GRAPE VARIETIES

In the following list the order of npemng is indicated by a
number “One” means earliest (m Southeastern New York about
August 20) and “ten” latest (about October 20). To be on the
safe side, if you reside north of New York City I suggest that you
omit 10, 9 and perhaps 8 because in some years the growing sea-
son is shorter than others so these may fail to ripen, if you live
north of Albany perhaps 7 and 6 should also be omitted Names
m italics are noted as long keepers

Black vaneties Fredoma, 1, Moore’s Early, 2; Worden, 3;
Barry, 3, Herbert, 4, Campbell, 4, Wilder, S, Eumdan, 6, Mills,
6, Canandaigua, 10. Red varieties Moyer, 1, Brighton, 2; Bind-
ley, 2, Gcertner, 3, Delaware, 4, Brilliant, 4, Salem, S, Ver-
gennes, 5, Agawam, S, Caco, 6; Goethe, 7, Iona, 7; Catawba, 7,
Urbana, 8 “White” varieties Ontario, 1, Portland, 1; Winchell
(or Green Mountain), 1, Diamond, 3; Niagara, 4, Pocklmgton,
5, Empire, S, Dutchess, 7.

BOSH BERRIES

Blackberry Agawam, Ancient Briton, Blowers, Early Harvest,
Eldorado, Kittatmny, McDonald, Mercereau, Ward
.Blueberry Adams, Cabot, Dunfee, Greenfield, Grover, Hard-
ing, Kathanne, Pioneer, Ralph, Rubel, Sam
'Currant Boskoop Giant (black), Cherry, Diploma, Fay, Filler,
Lee (black), Perfection, Pomona, Red Cross, White Grape,
Wilder. * ' '

Dewberry Gardena, Lucretia, Mayes, Premo.

Gooseberry Chautauqua, Grown Bob, Downing, Oregon,
Pearl, Poorman, Red Jacket, Smith.

348 APPENDICES

Mulberry. Dowsing, Hicks, Merritt, New American, Stubbs,
Townsend

Raspberry, red Cuthbert, Erskine, Herbert, June, La France,
Marlboro, Ohta, Ranere (or St Regis), Latham
Raspberry, black Gregg, Hilborn, Honeysweet, Kansas, Plum
Fanner, Tyler.

Raspberry, purple Cardinal, Columbian, Royal Purple, Shaffer.
Raspberry, "whtie" • Carolina, Golden Queen.

STRAWBERRIES

Early varieties. Dorsett, Fairfax, Premier, Southland
Mtdseason varieties Aberdeen, Big Joe, Glen Mary, Marshall.
Late varieties: Aroma, Big Late, Chesapeake, William Belt
Very late varieties' Gandy, Orem, Pearl
Everbearing varieties Champion (or Progressive), Super
Giant, Lucky Strike, Mastodon

VEGETABLE MATURITY TABLE

(Number of days between sowing and gathering)

Artichoke, globe (per-
ennial), Artichoke
Jerusalem
Bean, bush
Bean, pole
Bean, shell
Bean, lima
Beet, round
Beet, long
Brussels sprouts
Cabbage, early
Cabbage, late
Cantaloupe
Celery, early
Celery, late
Chard
Chicory
Corn, sweet
Cress (peppergrass)
Cucumber
Eggplant
Endive

Fetticus (com salad)
Kohlrabi

180
40 to 60
50 to 70
60 to 70
70 to 80
60 to 70
150
100 to 130
100
150
110 to 130
100 to 125
130 to 150
40 to 50
150
70 to 100
20 to 30
120 to 130
140 to 160
120 to 140
40 to SO
90 to 100

Leek

Lettuce

Mustard

Okra (or gumbo)

Onion

Parsley

Parsnip

Pea

Pepper

Pumpkin

Radish, forcing

Radish, summer

Radish, winter

Rutabaga

Salsify

Scorzoncra

Spinach

Spinach, New Zealand

Squash, summer

Squash, winter

Tomato

Turnip

Watermelon

130 to 150
50 to 70
20 to 30
HO to 120
130 to 150
90 to 100
140 to 160
60 to 1<»
130to 150
100 to 130
20 to 30
30 to 50
60 to 90

70td«v90

100 to 130
100 to 130
40 to '60
60 td 80
50 to ,70
12010130
130 to 150
SO to 70
JI0 to 130

l

1

DATA FOR GARDEN PLANNING

APPENDICES

349

DATA FOR GARDEN PLANNING — (Continued)

350

APPENDICES

351

APPENDICES

THE EARLY HARDY VEGETABLE GARDEN

Seed or Plants

Vegetable

to SO Feet
of Roto

0 Ounce or
Number )

Depth
to Soto
t Inch )

Distance Be-
tween Plants
in Row
(Inch)

Limit Dis-
tance Be-
tween Rows

Beet

lor 100

1

4 to 6

1

Broccoli*

25 to 35

ft

18 to 24

2

Cabbage, early t

25 to 35

ft

18 to 24

2

Carrot

ft

y±

3 to 4

1

Celery

ft

%

2 to 3

1

Chicory

ft

%

3 to 4

1

Cress (peppergrass)

%

%

ft

ft

Dandelion

ft

%

6

1

Endive

ft

%

12

1

Kohlrabi

25

%

18 to 24

2

Leek

ft

72

3 to4

2

Lettuce plants

25 to 50

—

12 to 24

1 /

Lettuce seed

y*

%

12

1

Mustard

Vs

%

3 to 4

1

Omon seed

ft

7&

2 to 3

1

Onion seedlings

150

■ ■■■

3 to 4

1

Onion sets

16

X to 2

lto2

1

Paisley

%

fttoft

4to6

1

Parsnip

k

fttOl

3 to 4

2

Peas, dwarf

16

1 to 2

2to4

lor 2

Peas, tall

16

1 to 2

2 to 4

2 or 3

Potato

40

3to4

12 to IS

2

Radish, forcing

3&

%

1 to 2

1

Radish, summer

n

ft

2to3

1

Salsify

u

ft

2 to 3

1

Spinach

ft

2 to 3

1

Swiss Chard

ft or 50

1

12

lor 2

Turnip

ft

%tO%

4to6

1

* Lettuce plants may alternate with these plants if set on the same day.
The lettuce will have matured before the other plants need the space
tThe “unit distance” between plants is a personal choice — 12 or 15 in-
ches, as a rule, though 10 may answer in some cases

, VEGETABLES TENDER TO FROST

Beans, wax Penalpod, Rustproof Golden, Burpee’s Kidney
Wax Beans, green Masterpiece, Bountiful, Burpee’s Stnngless
Greenpod Beans, dwarj hma. Fordhook, Dreer’s Bush
Dreer’s Wonder, Burpee’s Improved Beans, green, pole: Burger’s
Stringless Greenpod, Lazy Wife, Kentucky Wonder (or Old
Homestead). Beans, wax, pole: Golden Cluster, Kentucky Won-
der Wax Beans, pole Itma Giant Podded, Sunnybrook, Leviathan,
Siebert

3S2 APPENDICES

Cantaloupe Honeyball, Bender’s Surprise, Hearts of Gold,
Fordhook, Rockyford, Emerald *Gem, Osage (or Miller’s Cream).

Corn, early Golden Bantam, Metropolitan, Golden Evergreen,
Aristocrat, Black Mexican.

Corn, late. Country Gentleman, Mammoth Late, Stowell’s
Evergreen.

Cucumber • Davis’ Perfect, White Spme, Klondike.

Eggplant. Black Beauty, New York Improved

Okra’ Dreer’s Little Gem, Creole (or White Velvet), Perkins’s
Longpod.

Pepper, hot • Long Red Cayenne, Small Chili, Tabasco Pepper,
sweet. Pimicnto, Neapolitan, Sunnybrook, Ruby King, Ruby
Giant.

Spinach New Zealand (not a true spinach but a good hot
weather substitute).

Squash, summer. Crookneck, Cocozelle, Pattypan (or Simlin),
Vegetable Marrow (easiest to prepare)

Tomato Matchless, John Bayer, Marglobe, Livingstons
Globe, Avon, Bonny Best, Stone.

VEGETABLES THAT WITHSTAND FROST

Artichoke, French or Globe. Large Green Globe
Artichoke, Jerusalem Listed by few seedsmen, usually without

Va SS,rS. Crosby’s Egyptian, Crimson Glote, Detroit Dark
Red Beet, long: Long Dark Blood, Hendersons Half Long, Long
Smooth Dark Red

Broccoli. White Cape, Calabrese Sprouting, Hendeffons

^ B^Ssels Sprouts Matchless, I^ng I ,2lar Large

Cabbage, early • Early Jersey Wakefield, Charleston Large
Wakefield). Cabbage, midseason All Seasons, Earfy ^ron"^.
Succession Cabbage, late Autumn King, Danish Roundhead,

F1 c£$%rly. Earliest Shorthorn, Earfy *2*ffiE**
(or Oxheart) Carrot, fate- Chantenay, Danvers, Igennedi g
Cauliflower Henderson’s Snowball* peer’s Earnest

storm, Dry Weather tiMbJ'VhmB Rosy Plume,

Celery, early Easy Blanchng, Golden

White Plume Celery, late Giant Pascal, win v

Dwarf, New Rose.

Chard, Swiss: Giant Lucullus, Lyons. ,

APPENDICES

353

Chicory: Large Rooted, French Endive, Witloof.

Cress (or peppergrass) • Extra Curled

Endtve: Broad Leaved Batavian, Giant Fringed, White Curled.

Kohlrabi. Earliest Erfurt, Early White, Early Purple Vienna.

Kale Long Standing, Dwarf Green Curled, Dwarf Scotch.

Leek. Musselburgh, Giant Carentan, Frizetaker.

Lettuce, loose leaf Grand Rapids, Black Seeded Simpson,
Early Curled Simpson Heading, early All Heart, May Ring,
Wayahead, Tennisball. Midseason, butterhead California Cream
Butter, Deacon, French Unrivaled Crisp head' Wonderful,
Mignonette, Iceberg. Cos or romaine • Trianon, Paris White,
Ringsholm.

Onion, yellow Strasburg, Pnzetaker, Southport Yellow Globe,
Danvers Yellow Globe Onion, white * Barletta (or White Queen),
White Portugal, Mammoth Silver Ring. Onion, red: Southport
Red Globe, Large Red Wethersfield

Mustard • Fordhook Fancy, Southern Giant Curled, White Lon-
don, Chinese

Parsley Perfection, Fem Leaved, Champion Moss Curled.

Parsnip. Guernsey (or Student), Large Sugar (or Hollow
Crown), Early Round

Pea, dwarf, early, smooth seeded. Alaska, Eureka, Electric,
Eight Weeks Peas, earliest, dwarf, wrinkle seeded: American
Wonder, Prosperity (or Gradus), Little Marvel, Nott’s Excelsior,
Thomas Laxton. Peas, midseason- Senator, Abundance, Lincoln,
Laxtoman Peas, late, dwarf. Dwarf Telephone (or Carter’s
Daisy), Dwarf Champion, World's Record, Potlach. Peas, late,
tall. Champion of England, Prince Edward, Telephone, Senator.
Peas, edible podded: Melting Sugar, Giant Sugar.

Radish, forcing Crimson Ball, Ruby, Perfection, White Box,
Crimson Giant, White Olive, French Breakfast Radish, summer.
Chattier, lade, Delicacy, White Delicacy Radish, winter: Srarlof
China, Celestial (or White China), Black Spanish.

Rutabaga. Golden Heart, Long Island, Purple Top.

/Spinach Long Standing, Long Season, Prickly Seeded, Viroflay
"(or Thick Leaf), Victoria
, So 1 uly Sandwich Island, Long White.

Scorzonera: Long Black.

Turnip: Aberdeen, Milan, Snowball, Golden Ball, Flat Dutch.

GARDEN TOOLS AND ACCESSORIES

The following list will help you choose items that you may
need Probably you will not want everything spedfied, probably

.1S4 APPENDICES

also jou may v,Hi others By all moan': have the equipment that
util tit your individual case In ‘•itch instances ns hoes and rakes
h iso two or more sires «o as to do the work with least expenditure
of time or effort.

!h*l fl, pitting
Culm-tor, VorrroM
Ihtltl'r, fill stale
Du tin.' raebine
lin-’inv mtrriU
Ijiffr, r’i*s
I rttlb.v-

I Inarr pots
I n*t , <Ii i inr

toil I MIMIC
toil, tMl'pliUtlnR
(,rvft«y rl>< r l
C.nflire mile!

ttnltln ■ was

ltor, rnmrinn

Hue. *uiMe

tine, Warren

Hu e, mi«lr and tftl

Holtied mils

Knifr, a-parrm

Knife, p-vuvitu:

t.iM . rtfdro, pot and l««

Udder, - lep

ljvwn mower

Uwn rotter

Uwn ‘provider

J.lne, ranlen

Manure, dried

Pruncr, pole

Kit e, bamboo or nibber-tootbed

Kite, nnlen

Kike, 'rlf-elnnine

Kat e, 'tret

Kite, wooden rvrden

Sav , prumm* (swivel rtjle)

Srvlhc
Sheir, rn*'

Shear, hedre

Shear, prttmnc, smrfe hand
‘•hear, pruning, two hand, all steel
Shovel, D-hamlte
Shovel, lone hardlc
Sieltc

Spade, D handle
Spade, limp handle
Sprvver, eomprt«cd air
Spnjinr maletials
Slat ca, hanvhoo
Slain, wooden
Supports, plant
Trowel, steel shank
\\ alcnns-pol
Wecder, Eicclwor
Veeder, Hardline
SSeeder, Lanit

Wheelbarrow with removable sides
Wbeelhoc and seed drill
Window-box, metal, self-watennE

APPENDICES

355

GARDEN INSECT PESTS AND METHODS OF CONTROL

By Geosce M. List, Department of Entomology , Colorado Agricultural College

Crop

Insect

Stage which
does damage

Type of injury

Control method
given under
numbers at
foot of table

Asparagus

Asparagus beetle

Adult, larva

Feed upon new growth
and mature stalks

1,10

Beans

Mexican bean
beetle

Adult, larva

Feed upon leaves and
pods

3

n

Cabbage aphis

All stages

; Suck juice from Ieav es

A

Cabbage worm

Larva

Eat foliage

2

Cabbage maggot

Larva.

Tunnel in base of stem
and roots

5

Cutworms

Larva

Cut off young plants

«.»

Cucumbers

Cucumber beetle

Adult

Eat leaves and stem

8

Aphis

Adult

Suck juices from stem
and leaves

4,12

Squash bug

l

*T

1

Suck juice from stem

4,9

Eggplant

Fkabeetle

Adult

Eat young leases

10.11

Lettuce

Cutworms

Lana

Cut off young plants

1

Grasshopper

>

I

!

f

Eat young leaves

7

Melon

Same as cucum-
ber

Onion

Maggot

Larva

Burrow in the bulb

No satisfactory
method

Thrip

\dult, nymph

Suck juice from foliage

12

Potato

Colorado potato
beetle

Adult, larva

Eat foliage

3,13

Flea beetles

Adult, larva

10,11

Tomato psyliid

Adult, nymph

Suck juice from plant,
poisons plant

14

Peas

Aphis

Adult, -nymph

Suck juice from plant

4,12

Stfuash

Same as cucum-

ber

sTamato

Homed tobacco
worm

Larva

Eat leaves and fruit

1,9

1—1

Adult, nymph

Suck juice from plant

14

1 Cutworms v

Lana

S.7

Corn

Com earn ofm

Larva

No satisfactory
method

Cora-root worm

Lana

25

WATER DEFINITIONS AND EQUIVALENTS
(Ste Chapter IS)

A gallon of water weighs 836 pounds and equals 231 cube inches
A cubic foot of water weighs 62 S pounds and equals 7 48 gallons
An “acre-inch" of water is the amount necessary to make a layer
of water 1-inch deep on an acre (43,560 square feet) It requires
27,154 gallons to make an acre-inch of water ...

“Pounds pressure” and “feet of head are terms which indicate
of rater For trim

tanfcat sea level ml! create a spaifc S5Jf JboSStaS^
be measured on a gauge at its _ base tte Ration, the

variations dw to 0 ^ t of’tokS immaterial, the height

the tJkshcSd enter at ^^jStS^Hptoduce 1 pound
At sea level a column of ! water 2 3 fee t tag J0

* hether 016 1 ^

1 foot or 100 feet in diameter to supp iy the

JSiSft’fflBftf-V- wtm i - b. <—

of great aid See Chapter 15 , ,

APPENDICES

357

Fig 1 Protection of a Sidehill Spring
In order to maintain the punty and to protect the water of a spring from
contamination, it is advisable to build a concrete tank A, Sandy bottom
B, Substantial footing C, Cover D, Spillway This last is one of the most
important features of the construction because it prevents washing away of
the soil and thus undermining the foundation When such a tank is used for
a gravity or a hydraulic ram system the outlet pipe should either enter through
the footing or the side but its opening should be at least 4" above the bottom,
preferably pointing downward and certainly protected to prevent anything
but water from gaining entrance (See Chapter 15 )

TABLE l— WATER CONSUMPTION ON THE FARM
Water earned . . 8 gals per person per day

Pump at kitchen smk ... . . .10 “ “ “

Faucet at kitchen smk .. 12 * " “

Running hot and cold water m kitchen 18 “ “ “

Complete plumbing with water under pressure 30 “ “ “

Bathtub* . . .... 8-20 gals each time used

Closet * . . 3-5 “ “ « «

Lavatory (wash basm in bathroom) ... 1-2 " " “ «

Sprinkling lawn . . . . . 8 gals per 100 square feet

Soaking lawn ... . . 20 “ “ « «

Cow . .....4.* . . 15 gals per day

Home , • •• 10 “ “

Hog .... . . 2 “ “

Sheep ' ./... . . % « “

* Water for these purposes is included in the item above entitled "Complete
Plumbing and Water under Pressure ”

358

APPENDICES

TABLE 2 — YIELDS OF VEGETABLES AS INFLUENCED BY
SOIL EEACTION 1

(Acre Basts)

Calcium Limestone, to the Acre

Crop No lime 1,000 pounds 2,000 pounds 4,000 pounds

Beans, lima

Beans, stnng

Beets

130

1,488

31,840

Cabbage

Carrots

544

Corn, sweet

1,063

2379

Eggplant

Pepper

2374

Pepper

(another year)

7332

Sweet potato

6384

2,464 2,842 4,66?

1,690 3,122 3,518

25,425 32,080 30348

31,840 33,008 33,?28

18,560 20,080 21,920

3,662 4349 6,020

4.742 7,496 14,438

6.742 7358 7.S40

16352 23,744 ISfiSO

11340 14,000 14,640

Mapwi«n Iamestone to the Acre

Beans, lima
stung

Beets
Cabbage
Carrots
Corn, sweet

Pepper Z3?«

Ssr 1 ’ & as j^L 8®.

1 See Chapter 30

TABLE 3 -SIZES AND WEIGHTS OF TILE
- - - f Waefctof Sire WaghtO 13OO tile

Weight of Weight of

one tile 1,000 tile

359

APPENDICES

TABLE 5— SIZES OF TILE FOR MAIN DRAIN AND AREAS
DRAINED BY EACH

Acres Drained

Min inches

3 in

4 in 8 in

3 In

20 in

12 in

per 100 fb

Tile

Tile Tile

Tile

Tile

Tile

60 inches

186

28 8 74.4

1500

2700

4260

40

44

150.

218 604

1280

2208

3460

30

<1

120

166 516

1033

1896

238.4

24

M

110

170 477

980

1704

2630

20

«

109

15 6 484

900

1560

246 0

17 1-7

at

100

14 5 399

836

144 4

2281

It

44

93

133 373

770

1350

2130

13 1-3

at

81

123 35 0

723

1270

2003

12

44

73

119 331

693

1206

190*5

8

44

67

9 5 26.6

560

974

154 4

6

44

67

S3 228

483

839

1323

4 4-5

44

51

73 204

424

744

<170

4

44

46

63 134

883

*>5-5

1070

3

44

41

59 165

226

603

**07

2 2-5

41

87

53 14 8

301

MO

hi 6

2

44

83

47 133

280

46 6

74 0

1 1-2

44

23

41 124

24 0

414

650

1 1-5

41

23

37 103

213

374

>60

4-5

*4

20

30 83

163

30 K

470

3-5

44

13

23 74

ISO

250

40*

TABLE 6-

-NUMBER OF FEET OF TILE NEEDED TO DRAIN

AN ACRE

6

rods

or 100 feet apart

equals

436 feet to acre

5.4

it

U

90 “

M

484 “

It M

4.7

it

U

80 «

it

41

644 «

U «

4.2

it

it

70 “

it

«

622 «

a tt

3.6

it

fi

60 “

It

it

726 “

U it

30

l(

tt

50 "

it

it

871 “

tt a

2 A

U

U

40 “

it

*i

1089 “

tt tt

1.8

u

<•

30 «

it

tt

1450 “

tt tt

TABLE 7— SIZES AND WEIGHTS OF PIPE FOR DISTRIBUTION
MAINS IN SMALL SPRAY IRRIGATION SYSTEMS

Approx. Approx*

Size of

Amt of Water imateWt

Size of

Amt of Water

imateWt.

Pipe

(Gallons per

per 100 Ft

Pipe

(Gallons per per 100 Ft

(Inches)

Mmute)

(Pounds)

(Indies)

Minute)

(Pounds)

3 to 4

113

2'

23 to 28

375

r

Sto7

175

w

39 to 65

600

8 to 14

225

66 to 110

775

15 to 22

275

Ulto 175

995

FACTS ABOUT ICE

Ice forms from water at a temperature of 0 centigrade or 32° F.

A cubic foot of solid ice ■weighs 58 pounds; a cubic foot of water,
62% pounds , therefore' ice is % 0 the weight of water.

Ice occupies % 0 more space than the volume of water that forms

o

360 APPENDICES

it One ton of solid ice occupies 36 cubic feet, but as stored m ice-
houses it requires about 45 cubic feet of space
Ten pounds of ice has about the same cooling effect as 100 poun ds
of cold well water Every pound of ice in melting abstracts 142 units
of heat or enough to cool 10 pounds of water 14 2 degrees F
Cooling by ice is due to melting The faster ice melts the greater
becomes its value as a cooling medium This is why salt is
with ice, its great power to absorb water hastens the rate of melt-
ing Salt can be used profitably at the rate of 1 part to 3 of crashed
ice

In sustaining power, ice in a sheet 2 thick will us y
man, one 5" thick, a team of horses and a load weighing 2 tow
The best quality of ice is obtained from pure, clean, quiet water
Snow and slush are injurious to quality and .keeping I power
Ice has a specific heat of 0 S, or exactly half that °f water, e ,
Ad fpmnerature of ice changes twice as fast as that of water

“iTSSS Sf S ® a. » *«■

APPENDICES

361

tion, number of cows milked, methods of handbng the product,
kind and site of ice-house, size of family and whether or not a_
household refrigerator is used.

To supply average family needs about 5 tons of ice should be
stored, i e , about 50 cakes 22" square and 12" thick, allowing for
considerable waste. For dairy purposes 3,000 pounds per cow will
be needed where whole milk is cooled, and 1,000 pounds where
only cream is cooled

Cost of storing varies with localities and distance ice must be
hauled— about ?1 50 a ton when near-by.

TABLE 8— MATERIALS FOR BUILDING AN ICE HOUSE

Sills and wall plates
Studding
Comer posts

Outside matched boards, 1'

Rough boarding, I"

Waterproof insulating paper
G & G hoarding, prepared with waterproofing
material
Rafteis
Rafters

Rough boarding, 1"

Shingles
Ridge boards
Ridge roll
Doors

Door framing
Door framing

Planer shavings for packing between studding
Sawdust for filling around and above ice
Hardware including nails, hinges, screws,
bolts, etc

8 pieces, 2"* 4" x II' 10"
28 “ 2" x 4" no's"

4 “ 4" x 4" x Iff 8"

536 sq ft
536 “

536 «

524 “

18 pieces, 2" x 4' x TW
9 “ 2*x4"xl3'2'

195 sq ft
195 “

3 pieces, l"x4"x 1%’

1 “ 13'

2 “ 3'x3'

2 pieces, I%x3"x 14'

3 “ I%x3'x3'2*

VALUE OF ELECTRIC MOTORS

The dectric motor is the most dependable and economical
power for operating farm water pumps, provided the cost of cur-
rent is not excessive* Pumps are of two dasses, shallow and deep-
, well The first are designed to bft water from wdls or cisterns the
‘ .bottoms of which are not more than 22' below the levd of the
pumps themselves, the second, where the vertical lift from the
water to the pump is greater

Shallow-well pumps, may be placed above or near the wells or
cisterns from which they draw water, e g , a basement where they
are protected from freezing Deep-well pumps must be

362

APPENDICES

Changes from engine to electnc motor to operate n»m»«
involve much change of equipment In most cases the*Xi pulky

\

Fig 3 Centrifugal Pump with Several Driven Wells
When considerable water must be pumped the arrangement shown here wiS
■often be found less costly than to amt one tube of total, equal capacity be-
cause, when soil conditions are equal, it is easier to drive the smaller pipes
than a large one and the flow is likely to he surer Shallow wdls, IF to 20'
deep, may be connected together and connected with one pump

must be replaced by a larger one to secure pump speed Where
automatic operation of the motor is desired, a switch to control
the motor must be installed When belt dnves are used, some
style of belt tightener will be needed

Always the wiring for motor installation should be done by a
competent electrician and fuse plugs of proper capacity used to
prevent damage to motors

The amount of water pumped by electnc current or a gallon of
gasoline per kilowatt-hour depends upon various factors such as
size and class of pump, depth of well, and pressure against which
the water is pumped

In tests of S pumps at lie Indiana experiment station (reported
in Circular 184) the average consumption with a IS' lift at 30
pounds gage pressure was 1 25 kilowatt-hours per 1,000 gallons
of water pumped Similar results, secured on 5 farm-ins tailed,
shallow-well pumps where the water pumped was measured by
meters, showed a consumption of 1 44 kilowitt-hours per 1,000
gallons of water pumped, with pressures varying from 20 to 40

363

APPENDICES

pounds Energy required for pumping with deep-well pumps is
greater than that with shallow-well pumps and increases with the
increase m lift of the water

The average of 8 field survey records taken on shallow-well
pumps driven by gasoline en gin es showed a consumption of 1 05

364

APPENDICES

With gasoline costing 12^ a gallon and electric energy costing
Sfi a kilowatt-hour, the cost of pumping 1,000 gallons of water
under the above conditions were $0 78 for electnc power and
$0 126 for gasoline power The results of the tests reported would
indicate that under identical pumping conditions (both pumping
against the same pressure) a greater difference in cost of power
would result

Fig S Errors m Mounting Centrifugal Electnc Pump

APPENDICES

FERTILIZER MIXTURES »

36S

It is important to understand the distinction between a carrier
(without which no fertilizer can be mixed) and a filler or make-
weight which may or may not be necessary. In every case the
earner IS a necessary part of the mixture since all three of the
plant food elements must be combined with some other material
before they can be handled or stored For example both nitrogen
and ammonia in their pure form are gases which must be absorbed
and combined with some other substance before they can be u=ed
m a fertilizer mixture

Every farmer is familiar with the odor of ammonia which he
smells on entering a horse stable after it has been dosed over
night This is from the ammonia gas bemg given into the air from
the manure When land plaster (gypsum) is sprinkled over the
floors a part of the ammonia is absorbed and may be handled with
the manure, in which case the gypsum is the carrier So likewise
of other plant food elements, potash and phosphorus
The amount of inactive matenal in a fertilizer depends both
upon the analysis or percentage composition and upon the character
of the material from which the mixture is made A high analysis fer-
tilizer (Table 9) might be made up as shown under formula A

TABLE 9— FERTILIZER FORMULAS

A

Pounds

B

Pounds

Nitrate of soda

500

Nitrate of soda

500

Superphosphate

1,000

Superphosphate

1,000

Muriate of potash

100

Munate of potash

200

Kainit

400

Filler (sand or muck)

300

This makes a 4-8-5

This also makes a 4-8-5

, mixture

2,000

mixture

2,000

\ J If stored, especially in a damp place, fertilizer A would
j so the lumps would have to be broken and screened before iwn;
i 'To avoid this the same formula may be made of slightly different
[’ materials and’ a few pounds of filler added to preserve a good
j, physical condition, as shown in formula B
i, .The manufacturer might also use sulphate of ammonia, tank-
1 1 age or fish scrap or some combination of these materials as the

1 The diagram, tables and paragraphs have been condensed from Marvland
Experiment Station Bulletin, written by A G McCall (See Chapter 28 >

366 APPENDICES

sources of nitrogen Instead of deriving all the phosphorus from
superphosphate lie might use some bone or tankage to supple-
ment the superphosphate, and wood ashes as the source of part
of the potash In high analysis fertilizers, therefore, it is necessary
to use such Alter to insure a good physical condition

TABLE 10— PERCENTAGE AMOUNTS OF BASIC MATERIALS TO
USE IN MIXING FERTILIZER

Buie Mile rial

1

2

3

Per cents per ton

4 5 6 7

8

9

10

Nitrogen Carrier
Xllrale of will (18%)

112

224

356

448

860

672

764

896

1003

1120

Sulfate of ammonli

Drfe^&tood (10%)
Tankare (S%)

•Hih acraj?

Phosphoric Add
Curier

Acid phosphate (16ft)
Add phosphate (Uvo)
'Ground bone (23%)

«

200

400

250

too

400

too

soa

240

600

1200

750

520

800

1600

1 000

500

1000

5250

480

1200

1500

560

1400

640

720

800

125

145

17

250

288

174

575

429

261

500

572

548

625

715

455

7JD

858

522

ns

1001

609

1000

1144

696

1125

1287

785

1250

1430

869

Potash Carrier
Potassium mlfate (50%)

40

80

120

1(0

200

240

280

320

560

400

Pol-mlum chloride
(muriate 50%)

Kafnlt (12%)

Wood ariie* (2%)

40

108

500

80

556

1COO

120

501

1500

1(0

672

200

840

240

1008

280

1176

320

1344

560

1512

I

400

1680

•TMk.ee. r.'h «cnp, and bone contain both nitrogen and phmphonu.

TABLE U -COMPOSITION OFIWTERIALS USED IN MIXING

Fertilizing Material Ammonia Phosphoric aod

Nitrogen earners
Nitrate of soda
Sulfate ol ammonia
Dned blood
Tankage
Dned fish scrap
Phosphonc acid
earners

And phosphate
Raw ground bone

Potash earners

' ...

Potassium muriate
Kaunt
Wood ashes

Percent

18 to 19
Z4 to 26
10 to 16
5 to 12
8 to 10

3 to 5

Percent

3 to 18
£to 8

12 to 16

20 to 2$

1 to 2

Potash

Percent

' 48 to 62
48 to 62
12 to 126
2 to 8

APPENDICES 367

A low analysis fertilizer (Table 12) may be made as follows.
TABLE 12

Pounds

Nitrate of soda

125

Superphosphate

1,000

Muriate of potash

40

1,165

Filler (muck or sand)

835

This mixture is a 1-8-1 formula.

2,000

The fertilizer mgredtents in this low grade formula are all high
grade, but in compounding the low analysis brand it is necessary
to use an excessively large amount of make-weight filler On this
make-weight stufi the buyer must pay freight, cartage and the
cost of application to his crop It does neither him nor his crop
any good, so it does not pay him to handle it
The amount of filler might be reduced in this case by
tankage or fish scrap for the nitrogen earner and kairnt instead of
muriate as the potash carrier but this would not increase the
amount of plant food m the fertilizer In this case the additiona l
weight of inactive material would be in the form of a carrier in-
stead of a filler

TABLE 13 -OUTSIDE OF THE FERTILIZER BAG

High Analysis Low Analysis

167 pounds

Net weight

167 pounds

Potato Special

Brand name (unimportant)

Grass and Grain

4—6—5

Formula (important)

l—5—l

Ammonia

toss

]

Ammonia

10%

Available

Phos add

>0%

1

:

. Guaranteed analysis

!

1

Available

Phas. sad

8.0%

Potash

58%

j

L

Potash

80%

Fertilizer company

Name and address of
fertilizer company

Fertilizer company

368 APPENDICES

INSIDE OF THE FERTILIZER BAG

lllph analysis Lor. analytic

J52 pound' 1
■ami nr f I

mud J I

MHer

t C33pound'
aupfrplim

S08 pound*
muriate

41! pound*
nitrate

I Carrier,

4*4 pound'

| Phosphoric

ItO pounds

| Cartier
109 pounds

| Pots'll
143 pound'

| Carrier.

U! pound'

| Ammonia
*4 pound'

f Should not lie nec-1

essarj except as >
, conditioner

Nece"ary part of
superphosphate

j j^riant food material

Nece'ut} part of
potash

J [Flant food material

H Necessary part of
ammonia

riant food material

I

Filler

{

Carrier,

4 W pounds

*

rha'phortc

xeld

163 pound.

Canter,

29 pounds

Potaih

23 pound.

Camer,

K pound.

‘

Ammonia,
ft pounds

1,000 pounds
supcrpho*

40 pound*
muriate

nitrate

CAPACITIES OF ROUND AND RECTANGULAR CISTERNS
(See Chapter 15)

An easy way to determine the astern capacity needed dump
any period is to multiply the square-foot area of roof by mchej
of rainfall and divide by 1 6 For instance, a 30 x40' roof and

li/j" rainfall - 2 °^ — = 1,125 gallons A family of 5 which

uses 5 gallons daily per person will require 9,125 gallons annu-
ally or 4,562 gallons each half year If a minimum of 1,125
gallons is collected during the half year of tojratonn 3,437 pF
Ions will have to be m storage when tins Penodsta^i e .the
cistern would have to be that large or larger If, 1 ioweva, J-
desired to have a 6-months’ reserve, the cistern should uow
4,562 gallons In this latter case the years ■«4rmddbe cd
lected and stored dunng half of the year and, used during fl*

°TOm He mnlaB <ta™g a y r

to collect 12" of water during 6 months °* deep

CISTERNS AND TANKS

2,970

3,240

370

APPENDICES

PRECAUTIONS AGAINST A WET CELLAR

Methods of preventing a wet cellar are shown in the accom-
panying diagram In e\cavatmg for a basement, a trench should
be cut far enough back into the earth walls to permit laying a
line of 4" tile all around the foundation footing If the basement
floor is concrete it should be laid to slope toward a floor dram
which may be connected with the tile line around the footing

In order to keep water away from the foun^tion waU itis i
»rtant that the rain water from the roof “JJ

rein the house The downspout should to cMttdtoa sewer
ale drain, with cemented joints, leading to a «*vement ouflet_

Earth should also be piled I{ tfo foundation

Face drainage will be away from the building It t^iounoa^

wall is made of stone, concrete block, tile or o „ii mints

Sd r laid in 1.3 Portland cement mortar, ^

Sroughly filled For a of cement

best 'workability

POWER FROM A STREAM
11 harnessed, would furnish power enough

Many V^S^iorSlfand small household appliances
to generate dectny S m ^ d eve i 0 p ) writes

%T£g*?< SS* JE, -* «* -» «"'■

, Quarte rl> Bullctm o! the Michfem Experiment Station (Vd XIV, No »

APPENDICES

ured by using sna^ento*' level^d°a b ^ S 14 be meas-
flowing may be determined by nleJ of atJSSSffif

Fig 7 War for Measuring Flow of Water

Tbe weir consists of a rectangular notch cut m a temporary dam
across the stream The notch should be centered and its width not
more than % that of the dam, but sufficiently wide, so the water
flowing over the hp will be not more than 10" nor less than 1 "
deep This depth of water should not be more than % the drop
outside The edges of the notch should be beveled on the sides
and the bottom (Fig 8) to afford as little resistance as possible
to the flow It is essential that the dam be high enough so the
water will be quiet before reaching the weir and that the weir be
wide enough so the flow will not be too rapid
As the water surface above the dam slopes .toward the notch
the depth of the water flowing over the weir must be measured
up-stream To do this set a stake (A) 4' back of the weir with
its top exactly level with the hp of the weir An ordinary role
(B) set on this stake will measure the depth of water flowing over
fee lip The depth of the water being known -the volume of the
flow is determined from the formula- Q = 3 * w * d Vd Q equals

APPENDICES

373

Fig 8 Details of Water-measuring Weir

discharge m gallons a minute, w, width of notch in inches, d,
depth in inches flowing over weir
Having determined the gallons a minute and the avadable

° Ox 13

head in feet, the power that may be developed is. H. P.

Q equals gallons a minute and H, available head in feet
The width of the weir, depth of water flowing over it and the
avadable head bemg known the horse-power may be read directly
from the graph (Fig. 9). Example. If a weir notch is 25" wide
and 4" of watfer flows over it what power wdl the stream develop
with a 7' dam? By the formula

_ 600 gal x7ft

Q = 3 * 25 * 4\/4 = 600 gallons a minute H P = = 105H P.

T urning to the graph (Fig. 9) follow the curve near the left
side marked 25" weir to intersection of vertical line under 4"
Water Depth On a horizontal to the right of this intersection, find
, the q uanti ty 600 gallons a minute in the center column Follow
the same horizontal line to the right until it intersects the vertical
lme under 7' of head which is just to the right of the curve marked
1 h P This indicates that the stream will develop slightly more

t ^ n Wllh a given - depth the amount of water flowing over the
weir is proportional-to the length of the weir, 2. With a given
fall the power a stream will develop is proportional to the quantity

374

APPENDICES

Fig 9 Measuring Horsepower of a Stream

APPENDICES 375

of water available 3 With a given quantity of water, the power
a stream will develop is proportional to the fall used.

Streams that develop four horse-power or more will operate
a lighting plant without a storage battery by using a turbine with
a generator which will deliver a constant voltage Smaller streams
which develop at least one horse-power will operate battery-
charging light plants satisfactorily, but those which develop less
than one horse-power are better for operating hydraulic rams for
pumping water It is usually not advisable to attempt to harness
a stream unless the dam can be built at least 4' high because a
special, large capacity turbine or undershot wheel would be re-
quired to develop even a small amount of power

After determining 'that a stream will develop ample power, the
expense of harnessing it should be carefully considered, for in-
stance, the location of the dam site should be reasonably near the
buildings where the electricity will be used in order to avoid the
necessity of a long transmission line. If the banks are widely sep-
arated, a long dam will be required and a large area will be in-
undated, or if the banks are very porous a dam that will hold back
the water will be costly to build

FARM EVALUATION

Farms cannot be judged by score cards which give percentages
or “weights” to desirable and undesirable features; because, for
instance, a farm that might score perfect on every item except
water supply would be worthless if there were no water or if the
water were unfit for human and animal consumption Hence, as-
signing weights or percentages might lead to erroneous conclusions.
With file subject matter of Chapters 6, 7, 8, and 9, especially, m
mind, a better method will be to examine all the features of two
or more farms and then view the matter in a broad, common
- * sense way, making sure to cover the mam points summarized as
follows*

Location of farm Owner Address Distance to shipping station,
trading center pondition of highways, in spring, in winter Dis-
tance to schools, churches, nearest neighbors Is telephone avail-
able? R. F. D ? Electric current for lighting and power. Total
area of farm Acres in crops, that can be used for crops; in pas-
V ture, in woods,' in waste land, in roads, buildings, lots, swamps,
'lakes, etc.; m stump or brush land Kinds of timber. Ease or
difficulty of getting out timber or wood Topography as regards
economy of cultivation, irrigation, danger from erosion, flooding.

376 appendices

^S^SSSSSBSSSSlSSSe"*

a^3wS*£ s ^“'t"£5ir5

£SSf-*wt*

377

APPENDICES

TABLE 18— VEGETABLE STORAGE CHART

In ordinary storage of vegetables it is important to know wbat degrees of
temperature and humidity arc most favorable, also the length of time each
species can be held m good condition This table specifies these items for the
most important crops and makes cogent comments on methods of handling
(See Chapter 50 )

Vegetable

S

3

||

Humidity

Storage

Period

Remarks

Beets

34-38

Medium

Not r

to Apr

Bark place Keep best
In sand

Brussels Sprouts

24-38

Medium

Nov

to Dec

Biff Plant dose to-
gether In sand sprouts
unpicked

Cabbaeo

84-38

Medium

| Nov

!

to Apr

Sound, bard heads only
(Demands good ventila-
tion Ball head stores
Ibeat

Carrots

34-22

Medium

|N«V

to Apr

Dark place Keep best
lin sand

Celery

34-38 j

1

Medium

Nov

to Feb

Difficult, dig with roots,
stand upright In moist
sand Darken 3 weeks
before use

I

Onions

34-38

Dry

Sept

to Apr

Shallow crates or on
slat shelves Free venti-
lation Dry before e tor-
bur

Potatoes

34-38

Medium

Nor

to Apr

Dark Pile In bulk
Gtod ventilation

Turnips

34-88

Medium

Nov

to Apr

i Pile in bulk Avoid
bruising

Pumpkins and |
Squash

60-65 1

Dry

Nov

to Apr

Avoid bruising

Sweetpotatoee

60-53

Dry

Nov

to Apr

Cure at 70* for 8 weeks
before storing Discard
all bruised

Natural fertility as evidenced by kind and character of forest and
vegetative (even weed) growth Present fertility as evidenced by
growth of crops Physical condition of the soil, adaptability to
\ legumes/ other kinds of crops Natural drainage Artificial drain-
'-age Depth" of soil Kind of surface soil Kind of subsoiL Water
supply, source, quantity in dry summer months, winter months;
cost'ef upkeep, supply In pastures Buildings as suited to kind

378

APPENDICES

of farming to be followed Adaptability to some other type, cost
of upkeep, arrangement for economy of work Desirability of
dwelling as a home Condition of fences, kind as regards cost of
upkeep Farm roads Shape of fields Nearness to farmstead Kind
of orchards, condition Adequacy of trees for home use Climate,
as to growing season, days available for farm work, healthfulness
Neighborhood, character of people, available labor supply Possi-
bility of increase or decrease of land value Possibility of selling
Possibility of renting Desirability of farm as a stnctly business
investment Desirability of farm as a home place to retire to
Adaptability of farm to changing economic conditions necessitating
rhangp of type, to enlargement of business, to diversification or
improved organization of the business, to high yields of crops and
desuabibty of livestock production Sureness of market for major
crops grown History of farm as regards management of land with
respect to keeping up fertility History of region as to development
and speculation m lands as affecting present price Number of
other well developed, successful farms in immediate vicinity How
long have they been farmed? What are some of the operators
difficulties? How soon can the farm be made a going concern?
Are taxes on this farm reasonable? Can the present owner transfer
a sound title?

VALUES OF FARM MACHINES AND TOOLS*

The value of an implement, tool, or machine may be found by
using theongmal cos£ estimating the life of the machine and the
Sable rS junk value E*ch machine, tool or implement
depreciates at a different rate Depreciation also depends upon the
Se ™ and Se repairs made Hence it is rnipossible to state

te short! 1*

stasias fca xsk
as* ° r otter

oraru^tions mterMtedin each k,^ obsolete Qb

♦ Quarterly Bulletin, Mich.gan Expemnent Station, Vol EOT, No

APPENDICES

379

TABLE 19— AVERAGE LENGTH OF LIFE OF FARM IMPLEMENTS *

, taptestsl

Arms*

<stU£$

Amtt
Acre* CotbmJ
Per Tear

11 7

32 0

81

309

n i

uo

14 0

48 3

130

iSJt

ISO

1S4

650

463

41

160

Coen planter

11 7

14 0

Cdtmw

140

160

135

333

13 8

u

14 8

280

14 5

430

14 0

31 6

130

169

15 4
108

tiJt

31.1

•fawn’ Bulletin 1111. U S D A.

in value due to wear and tear It is usually a more important fac-
tor than obsolescence. Hence attention is centered on it, but assets
should also be reduced m value proportionately as they become
obsolete

Of various methods of calculating, the “Straight Line” (Table
20) is probably the simplest. By it the rate of depredation is de-

TABLE 20 -STRAIGHT LINE METHOD OF CALCUATING
DEPRECIATION

Fig 10 Longevity and Values of Tools (See text 1

APPENDICES 381

termined by dividing the “total depredation” by the estimated
life of the asset Total depreciation is obtained by subtracting the
junk value from the original cost If the original cost is $1,000,
the estimated life 10 years and the junk value $100 , the total de-
preciation would be $900 and the rate of depreciation 9% per
annum Hence the value of the asset at the end of the first year
would be $910 , at the end of the second, $820 , and so on

In general, the useful life of farm implements is governed by
such factors as design, quality, construction, dimate, soil, topog-
raphy, use, and character of maintenance In every case it is neces-
sary to consider each factor in appraising Exact rules are im-
possible

Figure 10 will be useful m estimating implement values To use it
find the probable length of life figure in the left hand column,
then on the bottom hne, the number of years used Where the
line of figures meets the column above the “years used” figure will
be the per cent of original cost For instance, to find the present
value of a $10 machine whose probable life is 15 years but which
has been used 7 years, find 15 m the left-hand column and 7 m
the bottom row, follow the line and the column of figures to where
they meet at 53 3 This signifies that the value of the implement
at die time is 5 33% of its original cost, namely, $5 33

When accurate cost figures on repairs are known, the value of
machines or tools can be indicated as follows A machine that
costs $1,000 and which has an estimated life of 10 years repre-
sents a yearly overhead cost of $193 This figure is found in the
graph (Fig 11) by locating m the left margin the value SI 000.
initial investment, tracing the dotted hne horizontally from this
point until it reaches the oblique “life line,” then following the
vertical dotted line to the base hne where the yearly overhead cost
will be found, namely, $193 This cost indudes the amount of
estimated repairs (4% of the initial investment) Therefore, $193
minus $40 (4% of $1,000 initial cost of machine) equals $153
yearly overhead cost, less the estimated repairs Hence, $153 plus
the actual repairs for any one year equals the total yearly over-
head cost

Most farm machinery costs less than $200 tools only a few
dollars — often only cents To interpret overhead costs accurately
from the graph on machines costing less than $200 multiply the
•„ initial; cost by 10 and follow the > chart with a machine costing,
say, $130 whose estimated life is 15 years thus $130. x 10 =
$1,300 Trace the $1,300 investment line on the graph to the 15-
year oblique “life hne” and drop a hne from this point to the
base line, where the amount $206 25 will be found But this sum

382

APPENDICES

is 10 times too much, so it must be divided by 10 to show the
annual estimated overhead cost, namely, S20 62
The overhead cost of tools that cost less than $20 may be made
by multiplying by 100 and, after making the calculation as already
explained for the S130 machine, dividing by 100
Having determined the yearly overhead costs from the chart,
follow the line upward to the “hours a year” line Then Mow a
line from the intersection of these lines horizontally to the right
hand margin and there read the value of hourly overhead costs
The same answer can be obtained by dividing the 3 early over-
head cost by the estimated number of hours the machine is to be
used during the year.

■Mail

mSmSSsmuamm

UUUUUMMaWMMm

mmmmm

mZl&SS&BB.

iiuaBii

yearly OVERHEAD COSTS-

Fig It Over-had Tool Costs

An idea of the importance oUeepng the^l ^

crop "dlj* ^"nJSvoftaling proper care of the land

APPENDICES 383

TABLE 20— PER CENT OF RAINFALL IN RON-OFF, AND RATE
SOIL IS LOST BY SHEET EROSION FROM LAND UNDER
DIFFERENT SYSTEMS OF MANAGEMENT 1

Treatment

Percent

of

rainfall

in

run-off

Tons
of soil
eroded
per A in
six years

Years
necessary
to erode

7 inches
of soil

Not cultivated— no crop

48 9

207

29

Plowed 4 ins deep Fallowed No crop

IHW

247

24

Plowed 8 ins deep Fallowed No crop

214

28

Com annually

■m

106

56

Wheat annually

25 2

39

150

Rotation — com, wheat, dover

141

13

437

Sod— blue grass . . .

IIS

17

2,547

1 Duley, F L, and Miller, M F Erosion and surface run-off under dif-
ferent soil conditions Mo Agr Expt Sta Res Bui 63 1-50 1923.

Board;

384 APPENDICES

the various products and articles named are bound to be about the
average of the best present practice in cold storage work:

TABLE 21 —COLD STORAGE AND FREEZING TEMPERATURES
TOR VARIOUS PRODUCTS

Products Deg F Products Deg F

Apples .««««. «... »«••!«< 30 Grapes * 36

Asparagus . • , ... 33 Hams (not bnned) ...... 20

Bcmcs, fresh (few days only) 40 Hogs 30

Bulbs . 34 Ice cream (few days only) . . IS

Butter 14 Maple sugar 45

Cabbage 31 Maple syrup . . 43

Canned fruits 40 Meats, fresh (10 to 30 days) . 30

Canned meats 40 Meals, fresh (few days only) ... 33

Ca rro ts 33 Meats, salt (after coring) ... 43

Celery 32 Milk (short cany) 33

Cheese (long carry) .... 33 Nursery stock .. ••• • „

Cider 32 Onions "

Corn (dried) 43 Parsnips . • «

Cream (short carry) 33 Peaches (short cany) 30

Cucumbers •• • 38 Pears • * ,,

Currants (few days only) •<•«•* 32 Peas (dtied) • • Jr

Cut^oas “. ....... ... 36 Plums (one to two months). . 32

Dncd beef" JO Potatoes . • %

Dried (roils « Poultry (atoj roren) .. 10

Eire* . • 30 Poultry, dressed (iced) . w

Fish, fresh water (after frozen) 18 Voter $***&> “ \ *

Fish, not frozen (short carry) 28 Poultry (to freeze) ....

m.wtn fiwzri .... 35 Sauerkraut • • ®®

fhnlbm . . 30 Strained honey g

Fur and fabric room 38 Su6«r 4 J

Game (after frozen) 10 =yrup . 42

Game (short cany) 28 Tomatoes tnpej

Game to freeze 0 (

When a product, particularly a JSU-

frozen under artificial refrigeration mm* depends ‘ «P“
tion when stored, the humidity of the JbS K^ell «P<* the
Mion and the length Be j

temperature. This MturaUy ™ bS found to be about the /
JSTTlfftaf h cold storages throughout the
country. '

APPENDICES

38 '

fig >13 Lay-outs for Sewage Disposal

A and B, arrangements on fairly level ground C, On some*
what doping land D, On a steep slope (See Chapter 16 )

(66 APPENDICES

PABLE 22— QUANTITIES OF MATERIAL NEEDED TO CONSTRUCT
SEPTIC TANKS

INDEX

Note Books quoted in italic type, authors in Roman

Absentee farming. It
Accounts, Farm, 63

“ Interpretation of, 64
Acidity, Tests for, 172 173
Acme harrow, 185
Acre costs, 55

“ How much money per, 54
Adaptability of farm, 48
Advertising plants for sale, 261
Advice, Disinterested, 4B
Agreement to buy farm, 48
Agriculture, Chevnstry of, 146
Agriculture, 82

Agriculture, Soil Fertility and Perma-
nent, 1S4

Alabama com growing, 16
Alderney cow, 113
Alkali, m
Allen, W Lee, 267
Alterations, 20

Alum for de-co!onng water, 69, 70
Amendments, 171
American Fnttts, 223
American Peach Orchard, 105
Ammonium salts acidify soils, 156
Amortisation of note, 60
Analysis of Leaves, 149
Anderson, M S , 151
Aphis, Recognition of, 336
Appendices

Choice varieties of fruit, 345 348
Data for garden planting, 349-350
Distances for fruit plants, 345
Early hardy vegetable garden, 351
Fertilizer applications for fruit trees,
354

Garden insect pests and controls, 355-
356

Garden tools and accesspnes, 353 354
‘Long row garden varieties, 343
Vegetable maturity table, 348
Vegetables that withstand frost, 352
" tender to frost, 351
Apple costs, 56

fruit buds, 217
“ , harvest, 330
* ( neglected trees, 209
“ storage, 320, 329
Apple, The , 166
.trees. 207

Apples, Faulty varieties of, 311
, " 'leading, 308 1

11 - number of varieties of, 209
Appraisal, 49

Apricot, Fruit buds of, 218
Arbors for grapes, 284
Arid •Sxgions, Fruit Groima in 232
Arizona Experiment Station quoted, 124

Ashes, Wood, bandied like lime, 174
*■ “ source of potash 161

Asparagus When to expect, 53
Aspect defined, 27
Assets, 64

Attachments, Whcelhoe, 192
Augur, Soil, 19
Author, Experience of, 2
Averages of production, 37
Ayrshire cow, 113

Back-filling, 94

Bactena, identifying work of, 335
Bailey, L H , 243
Baldwin apple growing, 17
Bankruptcy, 57

Banks favored by borrowers, 61
Barometer readings, Significance of, 109
Barrel sprayer (Fig), 337
Barry, Patrick, 88
Bearing age trees, 234
Beds, Outdoor nursery, 251
Bee-Keeping ; Productive, 125
Bees (Chap ), 125
" How many, to keep, 327
Beeswax, 125
Beet storage, 323
Bennett Ida D , 253
Bernes and vegetables together, 294
“ in orchards, 298
Berry boxes for transplanting, 258
" bush planting, 294
n canes, Pinching, 295
" patch cleanliness, 331
11 patches developed without cost, 54
11 plant diseases, 297
** “ insects, 297

" * pruning, 295, 296

*« plants needed for family, 298
1 raw distances, 293
« yields, 298
Bills, Discounted, 62
*• of lading, 62
Bi-Monthly Bulletin, 322
Blackberries, 292

M When to expect, 53
Blackberry suckers, 294
Blasting Costly 26
Bleaching to remove water stems, 67
Blight fighting, Fire 207
Blights control of, 331
Blue-pnnts of septic tanks, 78
Bods -blight, 227
Bonds 62

Bones for grapes, 282
Borrowing, 5?

11 for production, S7
money safely, 58

3R7

388

INDEX

Boswell and While, 1S7
Braces, Living, in trees, 238
Break-down or trees, 218
Breeding, Corn, 38

for eggs, 122
•* Potato, 39

“ Straw berry, 40

Bridge-grafting, 228, (Figs ), 228, 230
Broadcasting seed, 230
Brooding, Artificial, 119
Brussels sprouts, 329
Buckwheat, hulls and straw as mulches,
84

Budget, 61

Buds, fruit. Where to find, 217
Bud sport, defined, 40
Bugs. Control of, 331
Buildings poorly arranged, 19
Burlap, Wet, over plants, 260
Bush and cane fruits (Chap ) 291
Bush-Fruits, 291
Business, Volume of, 21, 65
Buy. When to, SO
Busing, Hasty, 48

“ Legal features of, 48

" vs renting (Chap ), 47

" smaller place than needed, 30

Cabbage storage, 320, 327
Cables, Thermal, 143
Caking of fertilizers prevented 163
Cane fruits. Bush and (Chap), 291
Canning, Advantages of, 266
“ Vegetable, 242
Canopy grape training system, 288
Cantaloupe, a gamble crop, 240
Canvas hose urination, 103
Capillary water defined, 83

Capital (Chap ), 32
11 deciding factor.

How much, 52
“ must be worked, 21

11 needed, 35

“ needs investment, 56
" on acre basis, 54
« origin or, 57
11 reserve needed, 53
11 small places need hi eh propor-
bon, 54
“ working

" “ and investment, 7

Card, F W , 291 . ,

Carrot, Wild, indicates mismanaged sou,
26

Cash crops, 7
Cashier as confidant, 61
11 Consult bank, 50
Cash u* inventory, 64 <•

Cat, 115

Catch basin (Fig), 95
Cauliflower, a gamble crop, 240
“ storage, 329
Caustics for insects, 337
Celery storage 329
Cellar cooler than ground, 327
“ floor, Water-tight, 322
" storage, 322, (Figs L 320, 321
Cement Assoc., Portland, 78

“ mixing 79 . .. „

Census, averages of milk production, 37
Chamstp oj/Ltncttijurc, 146

Cherry frail buds, 218

Cherry trace, neglected, 208
Cherries, When to expect, 53
Chewing insect work, 336
Chick, Clean, campaign, 123, 124
Chicks, Day-old, 119
“ pay first season, 56
“ Tenant’s, 47
Choosing a hum, 7
Cigar boxes for scedage, 249
Cistern cleaning, 70

“ Concrete (Fig ), 51
“ Filter, 66, (Fig), 59

“ Measuring water In, 70

“ treatment, 69

Cisterns, 68

Citrus fruits, When to expect, 53
Clay, Characteristics of, 147
Ctay soils conserve food, 155
Cleanliness of orchard, 331
Cbmatie region, Tamili ar, 22
Clipping leaves for transplanting, 259
Clover sod for strawberries, 272

" Sweet, as green manure, 127, 170
Cluster buds, 217

Coldframes and hotbeds (Chap), 136
Collar-rot, 227
Colloids defined, 151
Colony houses, 119
Color as index of soil value, 149
Color, Removing, from water, 69
Combination tools, 255
Comfort from wind-break, 32, 33
Comm, Donald, 322
Companion cropping, 181, (Fig), 181
Compatible sprays, 338
Competing regions 63
Compete fertilizer defined, 164
Compost (Chap ), 175
Comstock, J H ,126
Conifers for w md-break, 35
Connecticut egg-laying contests, 15
Consultant advice, 48
Construction of tools, 201
Contracts, 62
Contract to buy farm, 48
Contests, egg-laying, 15
Coolidge, Calvin, 265
Cool-season vegetables 42
Corbett, L C , 136. 182
Com breeding# 38
“ growing record 16
Gomel! Experiment Station, 254
Corrosive sublimate antidotes, 209
Cost, Calculation of, 55
Cost of production 21
Cottonseed meal, 159 , *

Counselor, Advice of, 48 - %

Cover crops. Green Manures and (Chap)#
166 ' . *

Cow, grade w phrtbied 113
“ Requirements 112
Crab apple trees, Neglected, 205
Credit, Powerful, 56

“ rules, 58 t »

“ only advantage of 57 # S

Creosote for tree wounds 212 ' /

and. 171

Rotation, 178 L

Crop use olhmc <?<&>.” „ '

Cr0p .? m& “JgS’Sirttad, ISJ- '

INDEX

389

Cropping systems (Chap), 117

* Marker, 180
Cropping, Partnership, ISO

* Succession, 181
Crops as soil tell-tales, 25

V r Special, 267
n tenants should phot* 47
“ to as oid in orchards, 314
Crotch treatment, 216, (Fig). 237
Cucumber, a gamble crop, 240
Cultivation, Deep, undesirable, 44
“ Function of, 44
11 Shallow, desirable, 44
•' Tune-saving (Fig.), 24
11 When to start, 193
Cultivator, Norcross, 195
Curd of wa ter, 67
Curing astern, 69
Currants, 292, 293 M

Currants, When to expect, 53
14 with grapes, 288
Currence, T M, 143
Cutaway harrow, 184
Cutworms in strawberry bed, 272
Cyanamid, 162

Daisy indicates mismanaged soil, 26
Damping-off cause and cure, 251
Day-old chicks, 119
“ 44 44 tenant’s, 47

Debtu, destruction of, 331
Debts may bankrupt borrower, 57
Decay follows stubs, 217
44 la soil, Rate of. 156
44 of faeutnood (Fig ), 211
Decomposition of manure, 155

44 green manures, 168

Deed, 49, 62

Delaware County (N Y ), farmer, 10
44 (state) grape grower, 22
Deliquescent fertilisers, 165
Denver, Colorado, 247
Deodorizing water, 70
Deposit box, 62
Dewberries, 292

11 When to expect, 53
Deuteronomy, 66
Den defined, 105
Dew-pomt, 106
Dibble for pricking out, 259
Digging, Right and wrong. 787, (Fig.),

gfeK ffWfcSU few. an

Discounts, 62
Disease precautions. 331
Diseases of berry plants, 297
Disk harrow, 184
Distances between trees, 304
Distances for berry wn. 293
Ditch digging tools (Fig )» 89
Dog, 115

Dormant spray, 333
Dowell and jesness, 63
Downing, Charles, 219
V Drafts, Bank, 62 fll

Drain digging (Figs); 90, 91
“ , outlet, (Figs), 86, 95
100 '

f* I effects (tie). 93
essential, ft

Drainage Loss of hme by, 173

“ needed, 23

44 systems (F«&). 92

Drains, Depths of, 94

" Distance between, 94
Drawbacks capitalised, 11

11 more important than advan-

tages, 26

Drawbacks of farm life, 1, 2
Dressings Top, 164
Dned blood 159
44 fish, 159

Drill for seed sowing, 252
44 marking with rake, 252
44 seed, ISO

Drouth affects plant growth, 100
Duck raising undesirable, 217
Duggar, B It, 37
Duley, F L., 153

Dumb-waiter and refrigerator (Figs ),
13, 16

Dusting, Essentials of Spraying and
(Chap), 330

Dusting and Fumigating of Plants,

_ Spraying, 330

Dusts to suffocate insects, 337

Earliaess due to drainage, 89
Earnings, Net, 64

14 to pay principal, 58
Ecclesiastes, 6
Edgcnoaod, My Farm of, 11
Educattm, liberal, 6
Egg grading, 120
Egg-iaying breeds, 119
44 44 contests, 15

44 prices, when high, 120
41 production enhanced. 120
44 receipt m large markets, 124, 125
44 yield, 15
Eggs, 116

44 for profit, 54 ...

Electricity, experiments in hotbeds, 143
44 for hotbeds, 141 %

Electric hotbed heating (Fig ), 145
44 pumping (Fig ), 8
Endive storage, 329
Erosion graphs (Fig), 153
44 Sheet, 1S2
Erwin and Haber. 99
Evaporation, checked by glass. 250
44 44 44 mulch, 84

44 44 44 wind break, 32

44 of water from soil (Fig ) f 194
Excelsior weeder, 295
Expense control, 65
Experience dearly bought, 7
44 of author, 2

Export Trade, The Farmer and The, 63

Factors for building locations, 20
41 Income, 2i
Fail, Ways to (Chap ), 7
Failure factors, 10
Fan grape training (Fig ), 289
Farm accounts, 63
Farm finance (Chap), 56
Farm flocks of fowls, 120
Fanrf “on edge,” 10

m

INDEX

I ami «>fr phc* In lltf 4

*>r fr, 7^

•» *- f a • r r»f» •!

1 I I C J » H

I a » rt B t*»r « 1 I u

/ ftu* r P * l t 1 •; Jn iA. 7>** 65

I n i» t * * /• 1 1 I*’

/d »' ,f '*r,‘ 1 »
l r*« f * «<* ti t i « 4 rrdl 3j
1 «■ 1 r r t r '» II

« »* ||?

I'l f f« * I n l‘ mi
|r*i \ l 1. M
Ini' r*| *il * *> O (* ift' JIS
#fri v ’t \ t», fK' 4 Iffr n<»»l itfWr«r
lu*^, 1*1

If f|i • i* *1 1 '* l f \

• r , I* *

M | !, ft

•• vi i 4i nr*- , ju

« t.W.1 *f'

4 !*- !►,, IS it )

<*« r

i i ' t r f /'r i » ■*. III

I rl"<ll *T* <» *« * «'

I * X4 I *» **

*' f {'fi

• t*»> » •» I*

•• e | ) |» rf l f J

If «u* ’nr ( *««•»•* ", MS

» I ' c r I

t * It ‘i 1 . %

I kM nl r i a* nn (Sir.), 312

tlr" II - 1,1 ,!■' I HI'

I It iret ll 1 1 I V CC 1 »p 1 IS
lili't *!«•> > ><

fu r t i '*•' M ll ip )

I lirnirr 1 1(1 1 II l >|< ) V J

Hm'li* II ip**

I Irr dil|t l r ' ll flflrr Cl

I Irn Jin- cil l > ’ IB

Silt hiii 1 M *- *

Hrrm» > fri-l 1 'f *ftrd ««*’ - l0
I Ir III i m‘l mi' i «’ put l* - a>
j i- il >r,l Cl
lull III

|M*r *nl li 4 •** . . ...

1 ial and p’lrlinf m 4ns.#» «»

I h! itii \ j»hn i fwm
} l«« Milliard 24 1
HomU / u ' •***■ V*

Itmim f«i *»l- ** x -

f-nlht* wV r iiiHpi of plant n*w*i Z,J
root for }l-'t 1*9

lorcnri* Wnihrr,

I nrrf Irtnirr «i t\

S-ntKn PI|,nAr !*■»

AmmVioni <♦/ U* m tf Tramtif, Z5I
I-owh on (inns

J-nmc^rrL, Tree building <H&). *^v
tmtr Sumifl ?:*

|>KK*lnr 1 noil l*i , _ , i

" ciiccl ed 1»> "i«d biriV 55

F ^ l & e ' BK),.k

M defined 1D5 « « *«•

»* tnfluenrnl b' waler t»od»t< 105
»• wedlelloii 1OT
twited Pltnl - To «**• 1W. IH
rJSu ilded !n wmdbreik 12
™ and VcfieUMe Storage (Chap >, 517

fnttt w

rrelt ^rwll Ttrm (Chip), 299

j Sr *«/ ttWUirg li And Re&cas t 252
Frail *Iir* ttirirg ((hip) 2M
5 nils Iter* Orafung (Chap), 225

• Ul^n in txi»n( 52, 3JJ, J13

I rail* t jlman *•»»

• f« * li at'sit 1 * "'and*, 309

• " ih#- J*'-"*' US

'* »■ lUrnr^ of 'M

M <ru*rr* n at JN

• Trrf 4-1 nl«» nf (Chap) 503
1t»I mnl b> mnllimk, 55
Suin' in 1. I- ij

Fm ir ttm of r.-* # J St aw if Duifixc

J t T •'»»*’*« »vnrri> bkiI DO
1 1 1 r-» I rn r»* ion of, *15

OanliV tm.H **>

C»ffr* cl at' 1 1JI

• rl il ^ it rm»n" phnU fo', 264
ft rt f m /b'miijp l 17 W

t, u / m l Itcu. o Stair c I tgehhk, 96
t.art n Iww*

(t£r H Fov, //«- to Stct r the, 239

f-r/V*i 7 / ' \rgrohJr Jtj

r,. »iV'i't fr; itr/i ; *!

t.v, o-,rt " Vn’rrn C.im*. to, *2 «, 217,

c.u'rt I rjf ’ !»'■ rr/ «’ 1 tfttobie, IK

f f'l'P. I 'X' -y’c 155

<>3i-3 fn- Ipirf • Ml

(talc wl't liirl 6

t.r-nlna'u 1 lnl MS

<.in-ii i it si.

(,|«<l'<l irtr* Satlnp 22., 229

(;’{£!! rahmp lindrilralilc III
doe-i'L-crlri 2 '2

• 1ft planted 2 «

•• \Uim lo expect SI

mill rmpc' I'*

Grafilrr; Iran Tt«» (Clop ). 233
•• Sncrextful 2-6

Hat fo- tree woundt 213
•> “ 1 eater, 2 >l (Fir ), 238

•• “ making 2 JI

Gnnar> of tie tnmd 12
Gtanulatlne fertilizer* ICS
Or -fe Ctil ute, Ft ootSit lenr «/. ®

«• pour in Uflww (uUie), 22
•• pruning 2b3 2W
14 a!on« WcrtS If'' 7^*

“ liambUB <f*lf ) l fc S,, 2 ?» ^

Crape »inc Tt»o tninK (Hfr), «-

C ^'tti»meennood, 2 S
fint font*, W>

•' fo orchard .03
" near tree*. Ml
*■ on nails 4* »

Graw In orchards 301
« " jstrtaticrr) bed <73

Cntet tor cement 79 ^

C»\lts water cnpplt. 65 (Fig).

•* 44 system i to

Gr««lliwe B UI'«»

Greenhrrasej (Cliap). 12S ,

391

XSSTOEX-
213

^«gS!r— “*

e© 3 rti-—
•tfcfi I s

GU«^L fcftt 174

W , W

B»ba. ® r *&isi»F tdr4
Slndicap. ,r 05

107 »

§SdemtiB ^dopms.

SS 5 yStf^*"* ,B

sKS-ShC

gr&g*krWi

SSime w*

^ -cs* *

&igiB$i ?o6

B Sr h»»^ c * 46

sr?, ‘ »

?S%5s3S.2a£*4
H0 "'

wm f fcrtiU“"h,vrt. 331

330

lnsCCtS rtdS^ Ion8 % btc*^ 8 ’ 31

ssrSfe^*
E&Svfc— ■ w

ygg^afa^ -mu <w” » n “ e,pA *
** 44

BSM

sa»

Sow*- ®^V- 91

&&*■*
1 « .. 1(12 . _.«.. 1 »

• .. Jn»|'- - .

'?-'S&^r den p : ,o

tho«agh^°| ros i dMtuW'. 110

W n"nr>${JL l*. *• 49

jonebngs

SSiTUt, ^

■‘*

INDEX

Labelling, 250
Labor costs, 55
“ Productive, <5
“ saving important, 20
Laborers vs white collar men, 14
Lanes, Field, 30
Lang weeder, 195
Lana, Hilly, 26
Land, how handled, 25
Land, Lay and Lay-out (Chap ), 27
“ need not be idle, 55
“ unused is an expense, 21
Landlord, Investment of, 51
Latent heat prevents frost injury, 110
Lawns, too large, 10
Laws concerning sewage, 8!

Lay and Lay-out of Land (Chap ), 27
Leader, Never cut, 216
Leaders, 219

Leasehold vs ownership, 47
Leaves, Voice of, 149
Leek, Stonge of, 329
Leeks, a long season crop, 214
Legal features of buying, 41
Leghorn, Strains of, 122
Legumes as cover crops, 160
Lemons, When to expect, S3
Lender, Unscrupulous, M
Lettuce storage, 329
Level vs. hill culture, 94
Liabilities, 44

Lice, Plant, recognition of, 336
Lie, Figures Don't (Chap }, 15
Life histones, Bug and disease, 332
Lime, amount to apply, 175
■* (Chap), 171 „„

" chlonde to deodorize water, 70

“ for strawberries, 273

“ in water, 67 ,

“ losses from soils (Fig ), 173

“ never mix with manure, 173

“ where to apply, 174

Ligmficafaon denned, 255
Litter, Forest, value of, 149
Live, Hem to. 200
Live stock. 112
Living, High, 57
Loan, Ixmg Time, 60

" maturity, 59

" renewal, 60

Loans, Ments of, 148
Loan aharka, 61 ,

Loans, Advantages of. 147
Locale, Where to, (Chip), 22
Loganberry, 298
Long Island small place, 21
*■ row garden. 41, (Tig). «

“ rows 315
Loomis, WE, 254
Lois, Selling farm at _a,4B
Losses due to weeds, 197 stoc i

" How to Avoid Nursery owe*
(Chap ), 232 ,,

Lure of the Land, The, "

157

" fresh or rotted, 133
" kills fruit trees, 235
.. must never contact lime, 173

Manure protects trees against frost. 111
" When to apply, 155
M a n ures (Chap), 154

“ Green, and Cover Crops (Chap ),
106

Map for drainage, tt
11 Soil survey, 22
Maple trees, 19

Marker cropping, 180 ■

Market, roadside, Fruits for, 309
Marketing, Roadside, 317
Maryland farmer’s care of tools, 203
Mason, A F, 330
Massachusetts egg costa, 121
Mata for hotbeds, 141
Mattoon, W R, 149
Maturity of loan, 59
Maryland Experiment Station, 157
May beetles, 272
Meadows for steep banks, 153
Meeker harrov , 185
Meldot as green manure, 170
Metabolism defined, 255
Mice injure trees, 227
“ poison station (Fig.), 312
Michigan Experiment Station, 104
Michigan fruit varieties, 308
11 poultry costs, 123
Milk production averages, 37
Milking must be done, 112
Milkweed, 198
Miner, C. C . 126
Xflniyrl fields, 29

Minnesota Experiment Station, U, 143
Miscible oik tor insects, 337
Missouri Experiment Station, 299
Mitchell, D C, H
Mured goods (fertilisers) defined, 164
Moisture in air prevents frost damage, 110
Money crops. Reliable. 54
“ makes money, 61
“ miking on borrowed money, m
■ safely borrowed. 50
Mormon, Henry and, 1U
Mortgage, 49
Mortgages, 62
Mound storage, 318
Mulch, Taper, 84

11 prevents soli heaving. 111
Mulches tor strawberries, 277 ,

Mulching experiments, 85
11 explained, 84

“ materials, 84

potatoes, 45
* practical, 45

■■ when desirable, 45

wind break, 36

frwn«mi grape training, 200, (Fig), 2*7

Mnnate of potash, 161
Mushrooms, 240
Myers, W S , 159

My Farm of Edgewood, 11 i j

j'

Nature, Alphabet of, , »,

Nebraska Experiment. Statmb

Nectarine, a smooth sJnnned p#ej» 9«
Needles. Value of pne* s*9> X .
Negotiakle paper 62 f £ ;V

Neutral soils, 76

INDEX

393

New nun made by farm life, 14
44 York Experiment Station, 122
44 York fruit varieties, 308
Nitrate formation m soil, 168
44 of soda, neutral In effect, 161
Nitrates lost in drainage, 152
Nitrogen, costly, easily wasted, 160
" growth maker, 159

41 not fixed, 161

Noreross cultivator, 195
Note, promissory, 60, 62
Novelties, Test some, 242, 244
Nursery beds, Outdoor, 251

Stock Loises, How to Avoid

(Chap), 232
orsery Si

Nursery Stock, When to buy, 236

Oats, Cost of growing, 56
Office of Information, 340
Ohio egg receipts, 121
44 Experiment Station, 322, 324
0 Kane, W C, 206
One spray control, 332
Onion storage, 328

Ontario Department of Agricultural Engi-
neering, 88

Ontario Department of Agriculture, 317
Open-center trees, 219
Operation, expenses of, (5
Option to buy, 48
Orange nut of blackberries, 297
Oranges, When to expect S3
Orchard, American Pttai, 105
11 arrangements (Fig ), 302

44 cleanliness, 331

u Grapes In 30 3

; 303. 305

" Laying out an, 306

44 Mixed, 302, 303

M Remaking a Neglected (Chap ),

206

u Soil preparation for, 305

41 Vacancies in, 210

Orcharding, Productive, 30
Orchards, Crops to avoid in, 314
44 developed without cost S4
Organic fertilizers, 19
Oregon Experiment Station, 124
Ornamental planting, Too much, 10
Outdoor storage, 318
Outgo vs income, 5
Outlet Protected dram, 96
Ownership, Advantages of, 50
44 Avoid, at first 48
44 vs. leasehold, 47

Paddock and Whipple, 232
Paint for tree wounds, 212
Paper mulch, 84
44 mulches for vegetables, 42
Parsley Storage, 328
Parsnip, long season crop, 241
“ storage, 328
. Partnership agreements, 62
44 cropping, 180
Pastures for strep land. 153
Payment, Inexorable, 57
Payrorats, Periodical, 60
Peach fillers 304
/" font buds, 218
Pitek OtcEhrd, American, 105
V.trare, Aged, 52

Peach trees, bear young, 313
14 44 Neglected, 208

44 44 protected against frost HO

P ea c hes , When to expect $2
Pear fruit buds, 217
44 storage, 327
44 trees, 209

Pears, When to expect &

Feat moss as mulch, 84
44 “ for seed beds, 252

PeOett F C , 125

Pennsylvania Experiment Stahtn, 315
Perennial weeds, 197
Perfect strawberry flowers, 269
Pets, 10

Philadelphia, Pa., 247
Phosphorus, the npener, 141
Physiology, Plant, 37
Physiology of Plants, 299
Pickling vegetables. 242
Pickles, 266
Pigeons, 118
Pigs, 38, 114
Pike vs dnckltnes. 117
Pinches of seed for sowing, 249
Pinching berry canes, 295
Pioneer conditions, 2
Pistillate strawberry plants, 269
Pit storage, 318, 328
Plan for drainage, 89
Planning activities, 63
14 for convenience, 21
Plant lice. Recognition of, 336
Plant Physiology, 37
44 setter, 260

44 shifting, Pot (Fig.), 260
Planting beriy bus he s, 294
“ board, 307

44 tables, 247

Plants, Pood for, 159
44 for sale (Chip ), 261
44 injured by tranOThwlmg, 256
44 not to be transplanted, 258
44 Potted, transplanted, 258
44 saved, Frosted, 111

44 Tender and hardy, 106

Plowing, Hired, 112

" vs. digging 189

Phun fruit buds 218
Plums, When to expect, 53
Plumping up nursery stock, 233
Pneumatic water system, 72
Pocket, Air, defined, 27
Pockets, Frost, 109
Poison station. Mouse, 312
Poisons for insects 337
Popularity of fanner, 9
Pork, 114
44 for profit, 54
Portland Cement Association, 78
Potash, fiber maker, 161
44 fixed m soil, 161
44 sources of 161
Potato breeding 39
44 storage, 327
Pot plant shifting (Fig.), 260
Potted plants, Transplanting, 258
Poultry breeds, 119

PracticJ^rdening, 267

Practiced Real Estate Methods, 22,
Prediction of frost, 108

394

INDEX

Preserving Advantages of, 266
Pressure tank (fig ), 71
" water system, 72
Price trends, 63
Pricking out seedlings, 257
Principal more Important than interest, 58
Principles and Practise of Pruning, 213
Principles of Vegetable Gardening, 243
Production, Essential Factors of (Chap),

Production, Methods to increase, 41
Production, Tomato, 261
Productive Orcharding, 30
Proficient, Becoming, 11
Profit, Factors for, 54
“ firat year, 56
Profit, Gardening for, 7, 52
Profits, 21

“ Tenants, 51

“ When to expect, 52

Propolis, 125

Protection against frost, 110
“ b) w bid-breaks, 31

" from frost, 107

11 of wind-break, 36

Pruning after tree planting, 308
“ berry bushes 294, 295, 296

“ Fruit tree (Chap), 213

" large branch, 211
“ newly set trees, 215
Pruning, Principles and Practise of, 213
“ Winter, products wood, 217
Puddling seedlings, 259
Pumping, Electric (Fig), 1
Pumpkin storage, 329

Quack-grass, 198 . . _

“ in strawberry bed, 272
Qualifications for success, 10
Quince fruit buds, 218
Quicksand, Drains m, 94

Rabbits, IH , , ,

Rabbits injure trees, 227
Racks for tools, 203
Rail fences, 29
Rake, How to use 190

»» it (Fig). 72. 73
Raspberries, 292

“ When to expect, 53

« with grapes, 288

Raspberry plants, 295
“ suckers, 294
Seat Estate Methods. 22, 27
Reclaiming neglected orchards, 207
Records, Effective, 64

“ of departments, M
Reconnoitenng for rales, 263
Rectangular orchards (Fig.), 302
Refrigerator, Basement, 317, (FlgO, 13, 16
Region, Familiar climatic, 22
Renting Advantages, of, 47, 48
“ on shares, 50 _

safer than buying, 50
Renting vs buying (Chap ), 47
Repair grafting, 228

Research, Journal of Agricultural, 246
R^Shty of home ownerehfp, 5

Retainer fee, 48
Rrtu^Wbroto^T

Rhode island Iced fowls, 122

Right angle, To nuke a, 306

Roads, Field, 30

Robey, 0 E , 103

Roadside fruit varieties. 111

Roadside Marketing, 317

Roadside stand, Fruits tor, 309

Roberts, I P, 18

Rock, near surface, 25

Rogue defined, 40

RoJphs, P H, 196

Root crop storage, 328

Roots clog drains, 95

Root system. Sweet potato (Fig), 5

Rotation, 178

“ of vegetable crops (Fig.), 177

“ to control weeds, 197

Rows, Broad vs narrow, 252
“ Direction of, 30
“ Long, 315
Rules for credit, 58
Runt plants, 331
Rural Guide, Kelsey's, 7
Rust of bramble fruits, 277
Ruth and Kelley, 221
Rutland, Irnng, 27

Safety deposit box; 62
Sale, FI anti for, 261
Sales, Duly, 265
“ Fostering. 263
Salsify, a long season crop, 241
“ storage, 328
Salt defined, 17 1
Sand, Characteristics of, 147

“ Drifting, checked by Wind-break, 31
" for cement. Testing, 80
Santee Dr E M , 75
Sash, Double glass, 140
' Greenhouse made of (Fig), 135
Satisfied mortgage, 47
Saving frosted plants. 111
Saw, Double edged, 205
Scale insects, recognition of, 336
“ In water, 67
■ •• kills trees, 210

Scarified seed, 170 ,

Soon wood, 41
Scrapple, 114

Screen gate for dram (Fig), 75 »

Scrub stock, lit
Sears, F C., 50

Security, 60 * >

Seed analysis, 197
“ Cheap, 243
M .Qepth to cover, 252
“ drill, 170
" growing, 246
u Home grown, 246 *

“ Impure, 177

« in broad or narrow rows, 252
« Large vs small, 245
“ Scanned, 170

Seed sowing, 249^

»* ** with drill, 252* f

M strains, 243 ,/

" iSltef defined, 247 -"SM'T''

INDEX

39S

Setdage deeded by natural signs, 248
Seedlings, Pricking out, 259
Seeds and Seeding (Chap ), 243
Selecting a form, 7
Selecting a Farm, 18
Seller, Contract with, 48
Selling a farm at a loss, 48
Septic tank (Fira ), 77-81
Sewage disposal, 75
44 ** laws, 81

Shading transplanted plants, 250
Shares, Renting on, SO
Sharks, Loan, 61
Sheds for tools, 203
Sheep, 114

Shifting plants in pots (Fig.), 260

Shovels, 186

Silt basin (Fig), 95

Size of fann, 21

Slag 161

Sludge m water, 69, 70, 97
Smothering weeds, 198
Smudge fires prevent frost damage, 110
Snow conserved bj wind-break, 33
" trap and wind-break (Fig), 33
Social conditions, 20
Sod m orchards, 301
Soda for cunnn astern, 69
Sods for transplanting 258
Softener, Water, 67
Son, Character of, 23
44 Darkening to favor genmnaboo, 248
“ depth, importance of, 19
H fertilizer tests on, 162
Soil Fertility and Permanent Agriculture,

Soil heaved by freezing. 111
“ heaving prevented by mulch, 1U
“ nature told by trees, 25
41 sample taking (Fig), 174
“ shallow, habmty, 19
* Sick, 177

41 Surface Management (Chap), 182
14 Suitable, 21
44 texture, 23
44 thawing, 111

Soils and Their Care (Chap ), 146
44 classified, 147
Solomon, 196

Something to Sell Every Day (Chap ), 265
/Sorauer, Paul, 299
Sorrel indicates acid soil, 26
Sowing at wrong times, 240
44 seed, Thick at thin, 250
44 times, 247
Spades, 186
Special crops, 267
Sphagnum moss for seed beds, 2 52
Spit defined, 186
Spotting board (Fig), 259
Sprayer, Barrel (Fig), 337
Spraying Circular system of, 101
„ “ Dormant, 211

, Sprayi g, Dusting and , FUfmgahng of

Plants, 330 ,

Sprays that may and most not be mused
(Fig), 333

Sprajlngon a windy day (Fig), 339
Sprays, Commercial, 335
/* 'Homemade, 337
Spraying aAd Dusting Essentials of
jCfcapJ/330

Spraying against the wind, 330
Sprayer, Air pressure (Fig), 336

Spring-tooth harrow, 185

Sprinkling Folly of, 87

Spun, Fruit, 217

Square orchards (Fig ), 302

Squash storage, 329

Stammate strawberry flowers, 269

Starving weeds, 199

Stew, 10

Sbckera. 335

Stock, Scrub, 116

Stocks, 62

StodSrt, C W, 146
Stone walls, 29
Store plants, 261

essentials 317
" m mounds, 318

4 of Fnnts^and Vegetables (Chap *

Storage room, Cellar, 320, (Fig), 320
Storer, F H., 82
Stover, Shredded as mulch, 84
Strains of seed. 38, 244
Straw as a mulch, 84
44 in vegetable garden, 42
mukheSjpro and am, 45
Strawberries (Chap ), 267
“ dislike lime, 273

“ pay the second season, 56

44 When to expect, 53

Strawberry bed renewal, 279 (Fig), 279
44 breeding, 40

44 fertilizing 277

44 flowers removed, 276

44 harvest, 278

44 hoeing 276

“ insects, 272, 280

44 irrigation, 278

44 marketing 278

44 a money crop, 268

44 mulches, 277

44 nurseries 270, 271

14 niching rules. 278

44 plant and runner (Fig), 276

44 44 setting (Fig), 275

44 planting 274

44 plants, Home grown, 271

3 44 perfect and nupw

feet, 269

44 preparation for bed, 273

44 production costs, 268

44 runner removal, 276

44 succession crop, 278

44 Systems of growing 274

44 varieties, 269, 270

44 When to plant, 273

yields 268
Streeter, J W, 308
Stump fences, 29
Subenzatum 255

Subtropical Vegetable Gardening, 196
Succeed, Who is Likely to (Chap ) ll
Succession crop after strawberries, 279
Succession cropping 181
Succcssjul Gardening, 82
Suckers of berry plants, 294
Sucking Insect work, 356
Sulking plants, 208
Summer-houses for grapes, 284

396

INDEX

Sunlight distribution (FIs), 28
Sunshine aids plant health, 332
“ and irrigation, 103

Superphosphate, 101
Supplemental land, 50
Surface management of the soil, 182
Suney for drainage, 89
" Soil, map, 22

Swamp, 49

Sweet potato root system (Fie.), 3
“ “ storage, 329

Synthetic fertilisers, 166
Systems of grape training, 285, 288

Taft, L. It , 128

Tank, Pressure (Fig), 71

Tankage, 159

Tar for tree wounds, 212

Taxes, 49

Team, rented, 112

Temperature raised by black soil, 248
Ten Acres Enough, 18
Tenant owns movables, 47
“ profits, 51
“ supplies. What, 51
Teats, seed, 245
Texture of soil. 147
Thawing of soil. 111
Thermostat, 142
Thinning to unproie fruit, 17
Hustle a bad weed, 195
Thomas slag, 161
Throckmorton, R 1 , 152

M undesirable, 44
“ Function of, 44, 152
*' Importance of, 182

“ When to start, 193

Timber, 10
Tune costs, 55

“ saved in turning, 30
Time-saving eultivatuin (Fig), 24
Times to sow and plant, «7
Title, Clear, 49
Tomatoes planted late, 241
Tomato Production, 261
Tomatoes saved from frost, 242
Tomato storage, ,329
Tomatoes till Thanksgiving, 239
Tool construction, 201
“ costs, 200
“ painting, 204
“ sharpening, 204
“ storage, 203
Tools (Chap ), 200
“ buy early, 205
Care of, 203
“ Combination, 205
“ Ditch digginjt (Fig ), 89, 91

* for grafting, 224

“ Newly invented, 205
Top dressings, 164
Tractor, 293

• rented, 112
« vs horse, 186 , ...

P^^Tctap), 253

uijunes to large plants, 255
wwitar irrigation, 101

Transplanting machine eared for, 201
“ Plants for, 261

" Preparation for, 259

Trap-nesting, 122, 123
Tree fruits, Selection of (Chip ), 308
“ planting, 215
“ pruning, 213
11 roots clog drains, 95
“ setting (Fig), 305
“ setting methods (Fig ), 305
" surgeon, 207
“ training, 235

" training by disbudding (Fig.), 220

Trees, Grafting frui
11 Grapes near, 303
" Indicate soil nature, 25
" Low headed, 216
“ Objectionable, 19
" Preventing lop-aided, 22
“ Saving girdled, 227
" sues to buy, 234
“ to work oier, 210
" Training, 214
•• “ young, 221

Trellises for grapes, 286
Trenching, Bastard, 188, (Pig.), 188
True, 187
Trends, Price, 63
Trowel Long luting, 201
True bugs. Work ok 336
Truly Rural, 15
Truck for hauling, 112
Tumefaction of the cranium, 9
Turkey raising undesirable, 118
Turning time saved, 30, 41
Turnip storage. 328
Turtles is. ducklings, 117

Usury, 57

Van Slyke, Dr L L , 171
Varieties, Fruit, to choose, 303

" High quality legetable, 242

Vase-form trees, 219
Vegetable and Flnut Storage (Chap ),g>
Vegetable Crow to Choose (Chap ), 239
Vegetable Garden, The, 253

u quality enhanced by irrigation.

Vegetable Garden, Bote to Make a, 96
Vegetable Gardening, 175

■■ coo! season, 42

and cool storage, 320
« pay flic first season, 56

::

•• with berry plants, 294

Velvet of peach crop, 53 <

Verandas, Tools beneath, 203
Vetch among berry plants, 293
Viable seed, 2 47
Vine weeds destroyed, 198
Vineyard cleanliness SO 1 .

Vineyards devetopedivfthout
Visitors from the city. 9
Volume of busmes*, zi
Voorbees E B, 1”

INDEX

397

Walls, Stone, 29
Walks, Field, 30
Warranty deed, 49
Warren hoe, 194

Washington, Frmt varieties of, 303
Washington, George, 47
Water by gravity, 70
“ filtering, 67
“ Forms of, in the sail, S3
“ Functions of, 82
“ from springs, 70
“ increased in the sou, 87
11 measuring m astern, 70
" needed. Calculating, 69
** Objections to ground, 67
“ Purifying ram. 67
M Ram, superiority of, 67
** Removing color from, 69
“ Screening, 67

" supply. Gravity system, 66, (Fig.),
65

w supply, Inadequate, 49
" system. Pneumatic, 72
“ table, 19

“ to prevent frost damage, 120
Watenng flats, 250
“ pot, 87

Waterfowl raising undesirable, 117
Watermelon, a gamble crop, 240
Watermelons, seventy million, 15
Watersprouts are safety valves, 212
become brandies, 212
“ for bridge grafting, 228

“ Pulling ofT 212

Water-tight joint for cellar, 322
Watts, G S , 317
Waugh, F A., 105

Wax, Grafting, for tree wounds, 213
Weak stems need potash, 164
Weather maps, 249
Weed control practises, 199
“ dissemination, 196
Weedezs, Styles of, 194
Weeds as soil teH-taks, 25

Weeds (Chap ), 196

11 w strawberry bed, 272
“ smothered, 198
Well, Location of, 30
Wemer, H 0 , 42

West Virginia Experiment Station, 271
Whedhoe, advantages, 41

“ styles, 191, 192, (Fig.), 191
Whipple, Paddock and, 232
Whips— young trees, 236
White and BostveU, 157
“ collar man. 14
Who’s Who tn America, 6
Wiley, Dr H. W , 1, 56
Wilkinson, A. E., 166
Wilt of melons and cucumbers, 240
Wilting, Temporary and permanent, 103
Windy day spraying, 339
Wing, H. H., 37
Winter strength spray, 333
Wires attached to bees, 238
Wireworms m strawberry bed, 272
Wisconsin Experiment Station, 120
Wind-break and snow trap (Fig.), 33
“ distance from buildings, 34
" extent. 34

u mulching, 36

11 objectionable trees in, 31

M pro and con, 30

11 protection, 36

“ wasteful of land, 31

11 way to plant, 34

Wood-ashes, 174

Woman who developed a career, 267

Women sell goods, 266

Work, Paul, 261

Wounds, Painting, 212

Wright, Richardson, 15

Wyoming bee-keepers, 128

Y-crotches, 237

Y-cmteh treatment, 21 6, (Fig.), 237
Yield increase due to mulching, 45